Erken Dönem Psikolojik Travmaların Limbik Sistem Yapısı ve İşlevi Üzerindeki Etkileri

Öz

Bu makale psikolojik travmanın ne olduğunu (türlerini de içerecek şekilde) ve erken travmatik deneyimlerin, özellikle limbik sistem içerisindeki hipokampüs ve amigdala olmak üzere, yetişkin insan beyni yapılarını nasıl etkilediğini klinik psikoloji bağlamında derlemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Erken dönem travma, psikolojik travma, çocukluk çağı travması, limbik sistem, hipokampus, amigdala ve nörogörüntüleme gibi anahtar kelimeler kullanılarak 1996 ile 2024 yılları arasında yayımlanan orijinal makaleler, PubMed, PsycArticles, Web of Science ve Google Scholar gibi önemli veri tabanlarında sistemli bir şekilde taranmıştır. Makaleler ilk olarak başlıklarına göre taranıp, ardından araştırma popülasyonu, incelenen beyin bölgeleri ve travma türleri gibi arama kriterlerini karşılayan çalışmalar incelenmiştir. Sonuç olarak, bu derlemede toplamda 136 makale seçilmiş ve tartışılmıştır. Yaşamın erken dönemlerindeki travma yaşantıları, özellikle limbik sistemde olmak üzere, nörogelişimsel hasarlara sebep olarak bireylerin psikolojik sağlık durumları üzerinde önemli olumsuz etkilere sahip olabilmektedir. Travmanın insanların düşünüş, davranış ve hissediş biçimlerini etkilediği bilinse de alan yazındaki birbiriyle çelişen bulguların kaynağını anlayabilmek adına, nörogörüntüleme çalışmalarının bulgularının amigdala ve hipokampüs özelinde farklı travma türleriyle ilişkili olarak nasıl değişkenlik gösterdiği gelecekte yapılacak çalışmalarda daha detaylı şekilde araştırılmalıdır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• psikolojik travma
• çocukluk çağı travması
• limbik sistem
• hipokampüs
• amigdala

Effects of Early Psychological Trauma on Limbic System Structure and Function

Öz

This paper aims to review the subtypes of childhood trauma and its effects on brain structures and function, especially the hippocampus and amygdala within the limbic system, in the context of clinical psychology. For this purpose, original articles published between 1996 and 2024 were systematically searched in major databases such as PubMed, PsycArticles, Web of Science, and Google Scholar using keywords such as early childhood trauma, psychological trauma, limbic system, hippocampus, amygdala, and neuroimaging. The articles were initially screened based on their titles, and those meeting the search criteria, including study population, investigated brain regions, and types of traumas, were further assessed for relevance. Ultimately, 136 articles were selected and discussed in this review. Trauma experiences in early life can have a significantly negative influence on a person's psychological health by causing neurodevelopmental impairments, especially in the limbic system. While it is understood that trauma influences how individuals think, behave, and feel, the results of neuroimaging studies reveal variations in the amygdala and hippocampus based on different trauma subtypes. These changes merit deeper investigation in future research to fully understand the reasons behind the diverse findings in existing literature.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• psychological trauma
• childhood trauma
• limbic system
• hippocampus
• amygdala

Kaynakça

1. Aas M, Dieset I, Mørch R, Steen N, Hope S, Reponen EJ et al. (2019) Reduced brain-derived neurotrophic factor is associated with childhood trauma experiences and number of depressive episodes in severe mental disorders. Schizophr Res, 205:45-50.
2. Agorastos A, Pervanidou P, Chrousos GP, Baker DG (2019) Developmental trajectories of early life stress and trauma: a narrative review on neurobiological aspects beyond stress system dysregulation. Front Psychiatry, 10:118.
3. Aguilera G, Liu Y (2012) The molecular physiology of CRH neurons. Front Neuroendocrinol, 33:67-84.
4. Ahmed-Leitao F, Spies G, van den Heuvel L, Seedat S (2016) Hippocampal and amygdala volumes in adults with posttraumatic stress disorder secondary to childhood abuse or maltreatment: A systematic review. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging, 256:33–43.
5. Altman S, Haeri S, Cohen LJ, Ten A, Barron E, Galynker II, Duhamel KN (2006) Predictors of relapse in bipolar disorder: A review. J Psychiatr Pract, 12:269-282
6. Alvarez MJ, Roura P, Osés A, Foguet Q, Solà J, Arrufat FX (2011) Prevalence and clinical impact of childhood trauma in patients with severe mental disorders. J Nerv Ment Dis, 199:156–161.
7. APA (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association.
8. Ashy M, Yu B, Gutowski E, Samkavitz A, Malley-Morrison K. (2020) Childhood maltreatment, limbic dysfunction, resilience, and psychiatric symptoms. J Interpers Violence, 35:426-452.

9. Badura-Brack AS, Mills MS, Embury CM, Khanna MM, Earl AK, Stephen JM et al. (2020) Hippocampal and parahippocampal volumes vary by sex and traumatic life events in children. J Psychiatry Neurosci, 45:288-297.
10. Bains N, Abdijadid S (2021) Major depressive disorder. In StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL), StatPearls Publishing.
11. Barch DM, Tillman R, Kelly D, Whalen D, Gilbert K, Luby JL (2019) Hippocampal volume, and depression among young children. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging. 288:21–28.
12. Begemann MJ, Schutte MJ, Van Dellen E, Abramovic L, Boks MP, Van Haren NE et al. (2023) Childhood trauma is associated with reduced frontal gray matter volume: a large transdiagnostic structural MRI study. Psychol Med, 53:741-749.
13. Bendall S, Jackson HJ, Hulbert CA, McGorry PD (2008) Childhood trauma and psychotic disorders: A systematic, critical review of the evidence. Schizophr Bull, 34:568–579.
14. Bernstein DP, Stein JA, Newcomb MD, Walker E, Pogge D, Ahluvalia T et al. (2003) Development and validation of a brief screening version of the childhood trauma questionnaire. Child Abuse Negl, 27:169-190.
15. Bounoua N, Miglin R, Spielberg JM, Johnson CL, Sadeh N (2022) Childhood trauma moderates morphometric associations between orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala: implications for pathological personality traits. Psychol Med, 52:2578-2587.
16. Bremner JD, Vermetten E (2012) The hippocampus and post-traumatic disorders. In The Clinical Neurobiology of the Hippocampus: An Integrative View (Eds T Bartsch ):262-272. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
17. Bremner JD, Randall P, Vermetten E, Staib L, Bronen RA, Mazure C et al. (1997) Magnetic resonance imaging-based measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood physical and sexual abuse: a preliminary report. Biol Psychiatry. 41:23–32.
18. Briere J, Scott C (2006) Biology and psychopharmacology of trauma. In Principles of Trauma Therapy: A Guide to Symptoms, Evaluation, and Treatment, (Eds J Briere, C Scott):185–229. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage.
19. Brietzke E, Mansur RB, Soczynska J, Powell AM, McIntyre RS (2012) A theoretical framework informing research about the role of stress in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 39:1–8.
20. Carrion VG, Weems CF, Eliez S, Patwardhan A, Brown W, Ray RD et al. (2001) Attenuation of frontal asymmetry in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 50:946–951.
21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022) Fast facts: Preventing child abuse & neglect. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/childabuseandneglect/fastfact.html (Accessed 29.02.2024)
22. Ceyhan İM, Alkar ÖY (2023) Çocuklarda ve ergenlerde kompleks travmalar ve tanı sınıflandırma sisteminde yer almaması üzerine eleştirel bir inceleme. J Clin Psychol, 12:295-306
23. Chen LP, Murad MH, Paras ML, Colbenson KM, Sattler AL, Goranson EN et al.(2010) Sexual abuse and lifetime diagnosis of psychiatric disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Mayo Clin Proc, 85:618–629.
24. Conus P, Cotton S, Schimmelmann BG, McGorry PD, Lambert M (2010) Pretreatment and outcome correlates of sexual and physical trauma in an epidemiological cohort of first-episode psychosis patients. Schizophr Bull, 36:1105–1114.
25. Cook F, Ciorciari J, Varker T, Devilly GJ (2009) Changes in long term neural connectivity following psychological trauma. Clin Neurophysiol, 120:309-314.
26. Copeland WE, Shanahan L, Hinesley J, Chan RF, Aberg KA, Fairbank JA et al. (2018) Association of childhood trauma exposure with adult psychiatric disorders and functional outcomes. JAMA Netw Open, 1:e184493.
27. Courtois CA (2004) Complex trauma, complex reactions: Assessment and treatment. Psychotherapy (Chic), 41:412–425..
28. Dannlowski U, Kugel H, Huber F, Stuhrmann A, Redlich R, Grotegerd D et al. (2013) Childhood maltreatment is associated with an automatic negative emotion processing bias in the amygdala. Hum Brain Mapp, 34:2899–2909.
29. Dannlowski U, Stuhrmann A, Beutelmann V, Zwanzger P, Lenzen T, Grotegerda D et al. (2012) Limbic scars: Long-term consequences of childhood maltreatment revealed by functional and structural magnetic resonance imaging. Biol Psychiatry, 71:286–293.
30. Dannlowski U (2014) Brain morphometric biomarkers distinguishing unipolar and bipolar depression: a voxel-based morphometry–pattern classification approach. JAMA Psychiatry, 71:1222-1230.
31. Davis M, Whalen PJ (2001) The amygdala: Vigilance and emotion. Mol Psychiatry, 6:13-34.
32. De Bellis MD, Baum AS, Birmaher B, Keshavan MS, Eccard CH, Boring AM et al. (1999) Developmental traumatology part I: Biological stress systems. Biol Psychiatry, 45:1259-1270.
33. DeCross SN, Sambrook KA, Sheridan MA, Tottenham N, McLaughlin KA (2022) Dynamic alterations in neural networks supporting aversive learning in children exposed to trauma: Neural mechanisms underlying psychopathology. Biol Psychiatry, 91:667– 675.
34. Dias A, Hessen DJ, Kleber RJ (2015) Child maltreatment and psychological symptoms in a Portuguese adult community sample: The harmful effects of emotional abuse. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 24:767-778.
35. Du J, Li M, Huang Q, Liu W, Li WQ, Li YJ et al. (2019) The critical role of microRNAs in stress response: therapeutic prospect and limitation. Pharmacol Res, 142:294-302.
36. Eilers H, aan het Rot M, Jeronimus BF (2023) Childhood trauma and adult somatic symptoms. Psychosomatics, 85:408-416.
37. Feder A, Nestler EJ, Charney DS (2009) Psychobiology and molecular genetics of resilience. Nat Rev Neurosci, 10:446-457.
38. Felitti, VJ, Anda, RF (2010) The relationship of adverse childhood experiences to adult medical disease, psychiatric disorders, and sexual behavior: ımplications for healthcare. In The Impact Of Early Life Trauma on Health and Disease: The Hidden Epidemic (Eds R Lanius, E Vermetten, C Pain): 77-87). New York, Cambridge University Press.
39. Flanagan JC, Sippel LM, Santa Maria MMM, Hartwell KJ, Brady KT, Joseph JE (2019) Impact of oxytocin on the neural correlates of fearful face processing in PTSD related to childhood trauma. Eur J Psychotraumatol, 10:1606-1626.
40. Ganzel BL, Kim P, Gilmore H, Tottenham N, Temple E (2013) Stress and the healthy adolescent brain: Evidence for the neural embedding of life events. Dev Psychopathol, 25:879–889.
41. Garno, JL, Goldberg, JF, Ramirez, PM, Ritzler, BA (2005) Impact of childhood abuse on the clinical course of bipolar disorder. Br J Psychiatry, 186:121–125.
42. Garrett AS, Carrion V, Kletter H, Karchemskiy A, Weems CF, Reiss A (2012) Brain activation to facial expressions in youth with PTSD symptoms. Depress Anxiety, 29:449–459.
43. Garrett KE (2020) Creative therapies, complex childhood trauma, and neurological ımprovement: how the arts can enhance neuroplasticity: a literature review (Capstone thesis). Cambridge, MA, Lesley University.
44. Hakamata Y, Mizukami S, Izawa S, Moriguchi Y, Hori H, Matsumoto N et al. (2021) Childhood trauma affects autobiographical memory deficits through basal cortisol and prefrontal-extrastriate functional connectivity. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 127:105172.
45. Heim C, Nemeroff CB (2001) The role of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of mood and anxiety disorders: preclinical and clinical studies. Biol Psychiatry. 49:1023–1039.
46. Heim C, Plotsky PM, Nemeroff CB (2004) The importance of studying the contributions of early adverse experience to neurobiological findings in depression. Neuropsychopharmacology, 29:641–648.
47. Herrenkohl TI, Hong S, Klika JB, Herrenkohl RC, Russo MJ (2013) Developmental impacts of child abuse and neglect related to adult mental health, substance use, and physical health. J Fam Violence, 28:191-199.
48. Herringa RJ, Birn RM, Ruttle PL, Burghy CA, Stodola DE, Davidson RJ et al. (2013) Childhood maltreatment is associated with altered fear circuitry and increased internalizing symptoms by late adolescence. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 110:19119–19124.
49. Holz NE, Berhe O, Sacu S, Schwarz E, Tesarz J, Heim CM et al. (2023) Early social adversity, altered brain functional connectivity, and mental health. Biol Psychiatry, 93:430-441.
50. Hoover DW (2020) Trauma in children with neurodevelopmental disorders: autism, ıntellectual disability, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In Childhood Trauma in Mental Disorders (Eds G Spalletta, D Janiri, F Piras, G Sani):367-383 . Springer, Cham.
51. Hopper EK, Grossman FK, Spinazzola J, Zucker M (2018) Treating Adult Survivors of Childhood Emotional Abuse and Neglect. New York, Guilford Press
52. Horesh N, Iancu I (2010) A comparison of life events in patients with unipolar disorder or bipolar disorder and controls. Compr Psychiatry, 51:157–164.
53. Ibrahim P, Almeida D, Nagy C, Turecki G (2021) Molecular impacts of childhood abuse on the human brain. Neurobiol Stress, 15:100343.
54. Ireton R, Hughes A, Klabunde M (2024) A functional magnetic resonance imaging meta-analysis of childhood trauma. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging, doi: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2024.01.009.
55. Janiri D, Sani G, De Rossi P, Piras F, Banaj N, Ciullo V et al. (2019) Hippocampal subfield volumes and childhood trauma in bipolar disorders. J Affect Disord, 253:35-43.
56. Janssen I, Krabbendam L, Bak M, Hanssen M, Vollebergh W, de Graaf R et al. (2004) Childhood abuse as a risk factor for psychotic experiences. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 109:38-45.
57. Johnson CP, Juranek J, Swank PR, Kramer L, Cox Jr CS, Ewing-Cobbs L (2015) White matter and reading deficits after pediatric traumatic brain injury: A diffusion tensor imaging study. Neuroimage Clin, 9:668-677.
58. Joseph R (1996) Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Clinical Neuroscience, 2nd ed. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins.
59. Kebets V, Favre P, Houenou J, Polosan M, Perroud N, Aubry JM et al. (2021) Fronto-limbic neural variability as a transdiagnostic correlate of emotion dysregulation. Transl Psychiatry, 11:545.
60. Kershner JR (2020) Dyslexia as an adaptation to cortico-limbic stress system reactivity. Neurobiol Stress, 12:100223.
61. Kessler RC, McLaughlin KA, Green JG, Gruber MJ, Sampson NA, Zaslavsky AM et al. (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychopathology in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. Br J Psychiatry, 197:378-385.
62. Keyes KM, Eaton NR, Krueger RF, McLaughlin KA, Wall MM, Grant BF et al. (2012) Childhood maltreatment and the structure of common psychiatric disorders. Br J Psychiatry, 200:107–115.
63. Kliethermes M, Schacht M, Drewry K (2014) Complex trauma. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am, 23:339-361.
64. Kisely S, Abajobir AA, Mills R, Strathearn L, Clavarino A, Najman JM (2018) Child maltreatment and mental health problems in adulthood: birth cohort study. Br J Psychiatry, 213:698–703.
65. Klorer PG (2005). Expressive therapy with severely maltreated children: Neuroscience contributions. Art Ther (Alex), 22:213-220.
66. Lanius R, Frewen P, Vermetten E, Yehuda R (2010) Fear conditioning and early life vulnerabilities: two distinct pathways of emotional dysregulation and brain dysfunction in PTSD. Eur J Psychotraumatol, 1:5467.
67. Lee DH, Lee JY, Hong DY, Lee EC, Park SW, Lee MR et al. (2022) Neuroinflammation in post-traumatic stress disorder. Biomedicines, 10:953.
68. Li J, Zhang G, Wang J, Liu D, Wan C, Fang J, Zhu W et al. (2022) Experience-dependent associations between distinct subtypes of childhood trauma and brain function and architecture. Quant Imaging Med Surg, 12:1172.
69. Luo L, Yang T, Zheng X, Zhang X, Gao S, Li Y et al. (2022) Altered centromedial amygdala functional connectivity in adults is associated with childhood emotional abuse and predicts levels of depression and anxiety. J Affect Disord, 303:148–154.
70. Lupien SJ, McEwen BS, Gunnar MR, Heim C (2009) Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nat Rev Neurosci, 10:434-445.
71. Lupien SJ, Parent S, Evans AC, Temblay RE, Zelazo PD, Corbo V et al. (2011) Larger amygdala but not change in hippocampal volume in 10-year-old children exposed to maternal depressive symptomatology since birth. Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S. A, 108:14324–14329.
72. Lusebrink VB (2010) Assessment and therapeutic application of the expressive therapies continuum: implications for brain structures and functions. Art Ther (Alex), 27:168–177.
73. Maheu FS, Dozier M, Guyer AE, Mandell D, Peloso E, Poeth K et al. (2010) A preliminary study of medial temporal lobe function in youths with a 27 history of caregiver deprivation and emotional neglect. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci, 10:34–49.
74. Maier A, Heinen-Ludwig L, Güntürkün O, Hurlemann R, Scheele D (2020) Childhood maltreatment alters the neural processing of chemosensory stress signals. Front Psychiatry, 11:783.
75. Mathews B, Finkelhor D, Pacella R, Scott JG, Higgins DJ, Meinck F et al. (2024) Child sexual abuse by different classes and types of perpetrators: prevalence and trends from an Australian national survey. Child Abuse Negl, 147:106562.
76. McEwen BS, Nasca C, Gray JD (2016) Stress effects on neuronal structure: Hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41:3–23.
77. McEwen BS (2010) Stress, sex, and neural adaptation to a changing environment: mechanisms of neuronal remodeling. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1204:E38–E59.
78. McLaughlin KA, Weissman D, Bitrán D (2019) Childhood adversity and neural development: a systematic review. Annu Rev Dev Psychol. 1:277–312.
79. Modelli ME, Galvão, MF, Pratesi R (2012) Child sexual abuse. Forensic Sci Int, 217:1-4.
80. Moreno-López L, Ioannidis K, Askelund AD, Smith AJ, Schueler K, van Harmelen AL (2020) The resilient emotional brain: a scoping review of the medial prefrontal cortex and limbic structure and function in resilient adults with a history of childhood maltreatment. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging, 5:392–402.
81. Murphy F, Nasa A, Cullinane D, Raajakesary K, Gazzaz A, Sooknarine V et al (2022) Childhood trauma, the HPA axis and psychiatric illnesses: a targeted literature synthesis. Front Psychiatry, 13:748372.
82. Nemeroff CB (2004) Neurobiological consequences of childhood trauma. J Clin Psychiatry, 65:18–28.
83. Nemeroff CB (2016) Paradise lost: the neurobiological and clinical consequences of child abuse and neglect. Neuron, 89:892-909.
84. Nettelbladt P, Svensson C, Serin U (1996) Background factors in patients with schizoaffective disorder as compared with patients with diabetes and healthy individuals. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 246:213–218.
85. Nogovitsyn N, Addington J, Souza R, Placsko TJ, Stowkowy J, Wang J et al. (2022) Childhood trauma and amygdala nuclei volumes in youth at risk for mental illness. Psychol Med, 52:1192-1199.
86. Nurius PS, Green S, Logan-Greene P, Borja S (2015) Life course pathways of adverse childhood experiences toward adult psychological well-being: A stress process analysis. Child Abuse Negl, 45:143-153.
87. Orellana SC, Bethlehem RAI, Simpson-Kent IL, van Harmelen AL, Vértes PE, Bullmore ET (2024) Childhood maltreatment influences adult brain structure through its effects on immune, metabolic, and psychosocial factors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 121:e2304704121.
88. Öztürk E (2020) Psikotarih, travma ve dissosiyasyon: çocukluk çağı travmaları, savaşlar ve dissosiyasyonun anamnezi. In Psikotarih (Ed: E Öztürk):1-21. Ankara, Türkiye Klinikleri.
89. Öztürk E, Derin G (2020) Psikotravmatoloji. Aydın İnsan ve Toplum Dergisi, 6:181-214.
90. Perry B, Pollard R (1998) Homeostasis, stress, trauma and adaptation. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Clin N Am, 7:33–51.
91. Perry BD (2002) Childhood experience and the expression of genetic potential: What childhood neglect tells us about nature and nurture. Brain Mind, 3:79–100.
92. Perry BD, Szalavitz M (2017) The Boy who was Raised as a Dog: and Other Stories From a Child Psychiatrist's Notebook--What Traumatized Children Can Teach Us about Loss, Love, and Healing. New York, NY, Hachette.
93. Philippe FL, Laventure S, Beaulieu-Pelletier G, Lecours S, Lekes N (2011) Ego-resiliency as a mediator between childhood trauma and psychological symptoms. J Soc Clin Psychol, 30:583–598.
94. Popovic D, Ruef A, Dwyer DB, Antonucci LA, Eder J, Sanfelici R, Piccin S et al. (2020) Traces of trauma: a multivariate pattern analysis of childhood trauma, brain structure, and clinical phenotypes. Biol Psychiatry, 88:829-842.
95. Rao U, Chen LA, Bidesi AS, Shad MU, Thomas MA, Hammen CL (2010) Hippocampal changes associated with early-life adversity and vulnerability to depression. Biol Psychiatry, 67:357–364.
96. Read J, van Os J, Morrison AP, Ross CA (2005) Childhood trauma, psychosis and schizophrenia: A literature review with theoretical and clinical implications. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 112:330–350.
97. Ross MC, Heilicher M, Cisler JM (2021) Functional imaging correlates of childhood trauma: A qualitative review of past research and emerging trends. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 211:173297.
98. Saarinen A, Keltikangas-Järvinen L, Jääskeläinen E, Huhtaniska S, Pudas J, Tovar-Perdomo S et al. (2021) Early adversity and emotion processing from faces: a meta-analysis on behavioral and neurophysiological responses Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging, 6:692-705.
99. Sambuco N, Bradley MM, Lang PJ (2023) Hippocampal and amygdala volumes vary with transdiagnostic psychopathological dimensions of distress, anxious arousal, and trauma. Biol Psychol, 177:108501.
100. Şar V (2018) Dissosiyatif bozukluklar. In Temel ve Klinik Psikiyatri (Ed O Karamustafalıoğlu):453-460. Ankara, Güneş Tıp Kitapevi.
101. Silveira S, Shah R, Nooner KB, Nagel BJ, Tapert SF, de Bellis MD et al. (2020) Impact of childhood trauma on executive function in adolescence-mediating functional brain networks and prediction of high-risk drinking. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging, 5:499-509
102. Southwick SM, Charney DS (2012) The science of resilience: Implications for the prevention and treatment of depression. Science, 338:79-82.
103. Souza-Queiroz J, Boisgontier J, Etain B, Poupon C, Duclap D, d'Albis MA et al. (2016) Childhood trauma and the limbic network: a multimodal MRI study in patients with bipolar disorder and controls. J Affect Disord. 200:159-164. .
104. Spalletta G, Janiri D, Piras F, Sani G (2020) Childhood Trauma In Mental Disorders: A Comprehensive Approach. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
105. Spataro J, Mullen PE, Burgess PM, Wells DL, Moss SA (2004) Impact of child sexual abuse on mental health: Prospective study in males and females. Br J Psychiatry, 184:416–421.
106. Spiegel JA, Graziano PA, Arcia E, Cox SK, Ayala M, Carnero NA et al. (2022) Addressing mental health and trauma-related needs of sheltered children and families with Trauma-Focused Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT). Adm Policy Ment Health, 49:881-898.
107. Stein M, Koverola C, Hanna C, Torchia M, Mclarty B (1997) Hippocampal volume in women victimized by childhood sexual abuse. Psychol Med, 27:951-959.
108. Tang Y, Kong L, Wu F, Womer F, Jiang W, Cao Y et al. (2013) Decreased functional connectivity between the amygdala and the left ventral prefrontal cortex in treatment-naive patients with major depressive disorder: a resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychol Med. 43:1921–1927.
109. Teicher MH, Andersen SL, Polcari A, Anderson CM, Navalta CP, Kim DM (2003) The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 27:33-44.
110. Teicher MH, Dumont NL, Ito Y, Vaituzis C, Giedd JN, Andersen SL (2004) Childhood neglect is associated with reduced corpus callosum area. Biol Psychiatry, 56:80–85.
111. Teicher MH, Samson JA (2013) Childhood maltreatment and psychopathology: A case for ecophenotypic variants as clinically and neurobiologically distinct subtypes. Am J Psychiatry, 170:1114–1133.
112. Teicher MH, Samson JA, Polcari A, McGreenery CE (2006) Sticks, stones, and hurtful words: relative effects of various forms of childhood maltreatment. Am J Psychiatry, 163:993–1000.
113. Terr LC (1991) Childhood traumas: An outline and overview Am J Psychiatry, 148:10–20.
114. Terr LC (2003) Childhood traumas: An outline and overview. Focus, 1:322-334.
115. Terr LC (2013) Treating childhood trauma. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 22:51-66.
116. Trauma Practice (2004) Types of trauma. https://traumapractice.co.uk/types-of-trauma/ (Accessed 10.03.2024)
117. Tian T, Li J, Zhang G, Wang J, Liu D, Wan C (2020). Effects of childhood trauma experience and COMT Val158Met polymorphism on brain connectivity in a multimodal MRI study. Brain Behav, 10:e01858.
118. Tian T, Li J, Zhang G, Wang J, Liu D, Wan C et al. (2021) Effects of childhood trauma experience and BDNF Val66Met polymorphism on brain plasticity relate to emotion regulation. Behav Brain Res, 398:112949.
119. Tottenham N, Hare TA, Millner A, Gilhooly T, Zevin JD, Casey BJ (2011) Elevated amygdala response to faces following early deprivation. Dev Sci, 14:190–204.
120. Tottenham N, Hare TA, Quinn BT, McCarry TW, Nurse M, Gilhooly T et al. (2010) Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation. Dev Sci, 13:46–61.
121. Tottenham N, Sheridanm MA (2010) A review of adversity, the amygdala and the hippocampus: A consideration of developmental timing. Front Hum Neurosci, 3:68.
122. Trauelsen AM, Bendall S, Jansen JE, Nielsen HGL, Pedersen MB, Trier CH et al. (2015) Childhood adversity specificity and dose-response effect in non-affective first-episode psychosis. Schizophr Res, 165:52-59.
123. Tymofiyeva O, Hu R, Kidambi R, Nguyen C, Max JE, Yang TT (2022) A meta-analysis of brain morphometric aberrations in adolescents who experienced childhood trauma Front Hum Neurosci, 16:1022791.
124. Underwood MD, Bakalian MJ, Escobar T, Kassir S, Mann JJ, Arango V (2019) Early-life adversity, but not suicide, is associated with less prefrontal cortex gray matter in adulthood. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 22:349–357.
125. Valles NL, Harris TB, Sargent J (2019) Mental health issues: child physical abuse, neglect, and emotional abuse. In A Practical Guide to the Evaluation of Child Physical Abuse and Neglect (Eds AP Giardino, M Lyn, ER Giardino):517-543. Cham, Springer.
126. Van den Bulk BG, Somerville LH, van Hoof MJ, van Lang NDJ, van der Wee NJA, Crone EA et al. (2016) Amygdala habituation to emotional faces in adolescents with internalizing disorders, adolescents with childhood sexual abuse related PTSD and healthy adolescents. Dev Cogn Neurosci, 21:15–25.
127. Van der Kolk B, Perry JC, Herman JL (1991) Childhood origins of self-destructive behavior. Am J Psychiatry, 148:1665-1671.
128. Van Der Kolk BA (2007) The developmental impact of childhood trauma. In Understanding Trauma: Integrating Biological, Clinical, and Cultural Perspectives (Eds LJ Kirmayer, R Lemelson, M Barad):224–241. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
129. van Harmelen AL, van Tol MJ, Demenescu LR, van der Wee NJA, Veltman DJ, Aleman A et al. (2013) Enhanced amygdala reactivity to emotional faces in adults reporting childhood emotional maltreatment. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci, 8:362–369.
130. Von Der Heide RJ, Skipper LM, Klobusicky E, Olson IR (2013) Dissecting the uncinated fasciculus: Disorders, controversies and a hypothesis. Brain, 136:1692–1707.
131. Wang C, Zhu L, Zheng W, Peng H, Wang J, Cui Y et al. (2023) Effects of childhood trauma on aggressive behaviors and hippocampal function: the modulation of COMT haplotypes. Psychoradiology, 3:kkad013.
132. Weathers F, Keane T (2007) The Criterion A problem revisited: controversies and challenges in defining and measuring psychological trauma. J Trauma Stress, 20:107–121.
133. Weber DA Reynolds CR (2004) Clinical perspectives on neurobiological effects of psychological trauma. Neuropsychol Rev, 14:115-129.
134. Womersley JS, Hemmings SMJ, Ziegler C, Gutridge A, Ahmed-Leitao F, Rosenstein D et al. (2020) Childhood emotional neglect and oxytocin receptor variants: Association with limbic brain volumes. World J Biol Psychiatry, 21:513-528.
135. Woon FL, Hedges DW (2008) Hippocampal and amygdala volumes in children and adults with childhood maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. Hippocampus, 18:729–736.
136. WHO (2006). Preventing Child Maltreatment: A Guide to Taking Action and Generating Evidence. Geneva, World Health Organization
137. WHO (2021) Child Maltreatment. Geneva, World Health Organization.
138. Wu F, Tu Z, Sun J, Geng H, Zhou Y, Jiang X et al. (2020) Abnormal functional and structural connectivity of amygdala-prefrontal circuit in first-episode adolescent depression: a combined fMRI and DTI Study. Front Psychiatry. 10:e983.
139. Wurr CJ, Partridge IM (1996) The prevalence of a history of childhood sexual abuse in an acute adult inpatient population. Child Abuse Negl, 20:867–872.