The Ever-Evolving Dark Side Emotions of the Football Supporters: A Study on Adaptation of Schadenfreude Scale

Abstract

Enjoying from others’ maleficence, defined as schadenfreude, is a common emotion among football team supporters. Based on the social identity of supporters, schadenfreude develops as part of the rivalry, which the main sources of it are ‘similarity’, ‘repeated competition’, and ‘competitiveness’. This study is aimed to understand and classify supporters’ schadenfreude reasons based on an adapted scale. For this aim, the data gathered from a questionnaire consisting of a sample of 1.163 supporters of 14 Turkish football teams is examined by SPSS in order to reveal participants’ schadenfreude and their reasons for evaluating their rivals. As a result of participants’ rivalry classifications, the most common reasons for considering a team as a rival are determined respectively as ‘image’, ‘neighborhood’, and ‘worldview difference’. Moreover, schadenfreude is mostly felt towards the archrival, and supporters would be happiest with negativities experienced by the rival team’s managers. However, damage to rival team facilities is found as an unhappy situation. The study is the first that demonstrates the relationship between schadenfreude and rivalry and proposes ‘unique incident’ and ‘feasible contingencies’ as new rivalry factors. With these factors, different perspectives on the formation and continuity of rivalry are presented.

Keywords

• Archival
• Football
• Rivalry
• Schadenfreude
• Social identity

References

1. Abell, L. & Brewer, G. (2018). Machiavellianism and schadenfreude in women’s friendships. Psychological Reports, 121(5), 909-919.
2. Akdemir, P. & Erbay, V. (2023, 09 Mart). Bursaspor-Amedspor maçı: Dünün olayı değil... gazete duvaR. Retrieved March 22, 2023, from https://www.gazeteduvar.com.tr/bursaspor-amedspor-maci-dunun-olayi-degil-haber-1607316
3. Akpan, E. B. & Piate, R. C. (2023). Assessment of different methods of sampling techniques: The strengths and weakness. Shared Seasoned International Journal of Topical Issues, 9(1), 64-83.
4. Amani, D. (2019). Fan identification, brand community identification, and oppositional brand loyalty towards sponsors of a rival sports team: The mediating role of schadenfreude. Journal of Business and Behavioural Entrepreneurship, 3(2), 25-40.
5. Anadolu Ajansı (2021, 10 September). Başkent derbisi 40 yıl sonra 'alt ligde' oynanacak. Retrieved December 18, 2023, from https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/futbol/baskent-derbisi-40-yil-sonra-alt-ligde-oynanacak/2360961
6. Angell, R., Gorton, M., Bottomley, P., & White, J. (2016). Understanding fans’ responses to the sponsor of a rival team. European Sport Management Quarterly, 16(2), 1-24.
7. Arslan, D. (2010, 20 September). (Goal.com özel) Türk futbol tarihinden beş olaylı maç. Retrieved January 04, 2024, from https://www.goal.com/tr/news/2556/editoryal/2010/09/20/1822099/goalcom-özel-türk-futbol-tarihinden-beş-olaylı-maç
8. Aydın, M. ve Taner, E. (2022). Trabzonspor Anadolu devrimini nasıl başardı? TS tarihine damga vuran yıldızlar. [Video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qk1FAINzWuE

9. Başel, H. (2009). Sivas'tan göç ve göç edenlerin sosyo–ekonomik nitelikleri – 1. Sosyal Siyaset Konferansları Dergisi, 56, 365-391.
10. BBC (2009, 28 May). Nigeria United fan kills rivals. Retrieved January 22, 2023, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8072356.stm
11. BBC(2006, 26 August). A rivalry tied up in religion. Retrieved December 8, 2024, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/5289202.stm
12. Behrens, A., & Uhrich, S. (2020). Uniting a sport teams’ global fan community: Prototypical behavior of satellite fans enhances local fans’ attitudes and perceptions of groupness. European Sport Management Quarterly, 20(5), 598-617.
13. Bilir, P. & Sangün, L. (2014). Adana Demirspor ve Adanaspor futbol taraftarlarının şiddet eğilimleri . Spor ve Performans Araştırmaları Dergisi, 5(1), 56-65.
14. Boddy, C. R., Ladyshewsky, R. K., & Galvin, P. (2010). The influence of corporate psychopaths on corporate social responsibility and organizational commitment to employees. Journal of Business Ethics, 97(1), 1-19.
15. Bora, T. & Cantek, L. (2020). Ankara Futbolu: Memleket futbolunun kenar semti. Kebikeç, 9, 201-222. https://kebikecdergi.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/19_bora-cantek.pdf
16. Brislin, R. W., Lonner, W. J. & Thorndike, R. M. (1973). Cross-cultural research methods. Wiley.
17. Byrne, B. M. (2022). Structural equation modeling with AMOS basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd ed.). Routledge.
18. Çapık, C. (2014). Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışmalarında doğrulayıcı faktör analizinin kullanımı. Anadolu Hemşirelik ve Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi, 17(3), 196-205.
19. Carter, R. L. (2006). Solutions for missing data in structural equation modeling. Research & Practice in Assessment, Winter (1), 4-7.
20. Chisari, F. (2004). ‘The Cursed Cup’: Italian responses to the 1985 Heysel Disaster. Soccer and Society, 5(2), 201-218.
21. Combs, D. J. Y., Powell, C. A. J., Schurtz, D. R., & Smith, R. H. (2009). Politics, schadenfreude, and ingroup identification: The sometimes happy thing about a poor economy and death. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 635–646.
22. Crysel, L.C. & Webster, G.D. (2018). Schadenfreude and the spread of political misfortune. PLoS ONE 13(9), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201754
23. Cumhuriyet (2015, 18 February). Şalgam suyundan köfteciye... İşte Süper Lig'in sponsorları. Retrieved November 17, 2023, from https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/salgam-suyundan-kofteciye-iste-super-ligin-sponsorlari-216871
24. Dalakas, V., & Melancon, J. P. (2012). Fan identification, Schadenfreude toward hated rivals, and the mediating effects of Importance of Winning Index (IWIN). Journal of Services Marketing, 26(1), 51-59.
25. Edensor, T. & Millington, S. (2008). ‘This is Our City’: Branding football and local embeddedness, Global Networks, 8(2), 172–193.
26. Evans, D. & Norcliffe, G. (2016). Local identities in a global game: the social production of football space in Liverpool. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 20(3-4), 217-232.
27. Field, A. (2000). Discovering statistics using SPSS for Windows. Sage Publications.
28. FIFA (2023, 18 January). One Month On: 5 billion engaged with the FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022™. Retrieved April 14, 2023, from https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/mens/worldcup/qatar2022/news/one-month-on-5-billion-engaged-with-the-fifa-world-cup-qatar-2022-tm
29. Fotomaç (2012, 24 April). Bu rekabet çok farklı. Retrieved January 26, 2024, from https://www.fotomac.com.tr/eskisehirspor/2012/04/24/bu-rekabet-cok-farkli
30. Fotomaç (2021, 21 August). Ali Koç’tan 1 milyar TL. Retrieved October 11, 2023, from https://www.fotomac.com.tr/fenerbahce/2021/08/21/ali-koctan-1-milyar-tl
31. Fotomaç (2021, 6 May). Pınar Karşıyaka final aşkına parkede! Retrieved September 14, 2023, from https://www.fotomac.com.tr/basketbol/2021/05/06/pinar-karsiyaka-final-askina-parkede
32. Garcia, P. C., Castro, J. A. D. & Santos, J. M. S. (2007). The economic geography of football success: Empirical evidence from European cities. Rivista di Diritto ed Economia Dello Sport, 3(2), 67-88.
33. Gündüz, M. (2007). Toplumsal sorunları çözmede eğitime biçilen merkezi rol ve son dönem Osmanlı Aydınlarında eğitim düşüncesi. Erdem, 16(48), 21-54.
34. Güngör, İ. (2015, 31 March). İzmir’in Kan Davası: Karşıyaka - Göztepe Rekabeti. ABC Spor. Retrieved February 04, 2024, from https://www.abcspor.com/izmirin-kan-davasi-karsiyaka-goztepe-rekabeti/
35. Habertürk (2007, 6 December). Bursaspor, Beşiktaş'ı neden sevmez?. Retrieved July 10, 2023, from https://www.haberturk.com/spor/spor/haber/46654-bursaspor-besiktasi-neden-sevmez
36. Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., & Anderson, R.E. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis. Prentice Hall.
37. Hogg, M. A. (2001). A Social identity theory of leadership. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(3), 184–200.
38. Hogg, M. A., & Reid, S. A. (2006). Social identity, self-categorization, and the communication of group norms. Communication Theory, 16(1), 7–30.
39. Hogg, M. A., Hardie, E. A., & Reynolds, K. J. (1995). Prototypical similarity, self-categorization, and depersonalized attraction: A perspective on group cohesiveness. European Journal of Social Psychology, 25(2), 159-177.
40. Hoogland, C. E., Schurtz, D. R., Cooper, C. M., Combs, D. J. Y., Brown, E. G., & Smith, R. H. (2015). The joy of pain and the pain of joy: In-group identification predicts schadenfreude and gluckschmerz following rival groups' fortunes. Motivation and Emotion, 39(2), 260–281.
41. Hox, J. & Bechger, T. (1998). An introduction to structural equation modeling. Family Science Review, 11, 354-373.
42. Huddy, L. (2001). From social to political identity: A critical examination of social identity theory. Political Psychology, 22(1), 127–156.
43. Hürriyet (2017, 9 May). Trabzonspor'u husumet faturası. Retrieved October 09, 2023, from https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/trabzonsporu-husumet-faturasi-40094176
44. İlhan, E. (2014). Sporda Şiddetin Ulaştığı Nokta; 17 Eylül 1967 Kayserispor-Sivasspor Karşılaşması. KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 16(Özel Sayı I), 188-196.
45. İlkhaber (2023, 20 March). Sancak: Hedefimiz 3 yıl içinde şampiyonluk yaşamak. Retrieved May 25, 2023, https://www.ilkhaber-gazetesi.com/sancak-hedefimiz-3-yil-icinde-sampiyonluk-yasamak
46. İnalcık, H. (2007). Fatih Devri üzerinde tetkikler ve vesikalar 1. Türk Tarih Kurumu.
47. James, S., Kavanagh, P. S., Jonason, P. K., Chonody, J. M., & Scrutton, H. E. (2014). The dark triad, schadenfreude, and sensational interests: Dark personalities, dark emotions, and dark behaviors. Personality and Individual Differences, 68, 211–216.
48. Katz, M., Baker, T. A. & Du, H. (2020). Team identity, supporter club identity, and fan relationships: A Brand community network analysis of a soccer supporters club. Journal of Sport Management, 34(1), 9-21.
49. Kawarazaki, H., Mahmud, M., Sawada, Y., & Mai Seki, M. (2023). Haste makes no waste: Positive peer effects of classroom speed competition on learning. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 85(4), 755-772.
50. Keddie, P. (2018). The passion: Football and the story of modern Turkey. I.B. Tauris.
51. Kilduff, G. J., Elfenbein, H. A. & Staw, B. M. (2010). The psychology of rivalry: A relationally dependent analysis of competition. The Academy of Management Journal, 53(5), 943-969.
52. Korte, R. F. (2007). A review of social identity theory with implications for training and development. Journal of European Industrial Training, 31(3), 166–180.
53. Leach, C. W., Spears, R., Branscombe, N. R., & Doosje, B. (2003). Malicious pleasure: Schadenfreude at the suffering of another group. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(5), 932-943.
54. Li, X., McAllister, D. J., Ilıes, R. & Gloor, J. L. (2019). Schadenfreude: A counternormative observer response to workplace mistreatment. Academy of Management, 44(2), 360-376.
55. Milstein, N., Striet, Y., Lavidor, M., Anaki, D., & Gordon, I. (2022). Rivalry and performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Organizational Psychology Review, 12(3), 332-361.
56. Moisieiev, D., Dimitriu, R. & Jain, S. P. (2020). So happy for your loss: Consumer schadenfreude increases choice satisfaction. Psychology and Marketing, 37(4), 1525-1538.
57. Ouwerkerk, J. W., Van Dijk, W. W., Vonkeman, C. C., & Spears, R. (2018). When we enjoy bad news about other groups: A social identity approach to out-group schadenfreude. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 21(1), 214–232.
58. Pietraszkiewicz, A. & Chambliss, C. (2015). The link between depression and schadenfreude: Further evidence. Psychological Reports: Mental & Physical Health, 117(1), 181-187.
59. Reuters (2013, 3 May). Boca Juniors and River Plate historical background. Retrieved December 2, 2024, from https://www.reuters.com/article/sports/boca-juniors-and-river-plate-historical-background-idUSBRE9420SJ/
60. Roseman, I. J. & Steele, A. K. (2018). Concluding commentary: Schadenfreude, gluckschmerz, jealousy, and hate - What (and when, and why) are the emotions? Emotion Review, 10(4), 327-340.
61. Schrepp, M. (2020). On the usage of Cronbach's Alpha to measure reliability of UX Scales. Journal of Usability Studies, 15(4), 247-258.
62. Shamay-Tsoory, S. G., Ahronberg-Kirschenbaum, D. & Bauminger-Zviely, N. (2014). There is no joy like malicious joy: Schadenfreude in young children. PLoS ONE, 9(7), 1-7.
63. Sharapov, D. & Ross, J. M. (2023). Whom should a leader imitate? Using rivalry-based imitation to manage strategic risk in changing environments. Strategic Management Journal 44(1), 311-342.
64. Simon, D. C. (2017). The Anatomy of schadenfreude; or Montaigne’s laughter. Critical Inquiry, 43(2), 250-280.
65. Sivas Ekspres (2024, 20 July). Sivaslılar göçmen kuşlar gibi gidiyor, işte rakam. Retrieved December 16, 2024, from https://www.sivasekspres.com/haber/sivaslilar-gocmen-kuslar-gibi-gidiyor-iste-rakam-51496.html
66. Smith, R. H., Powell, C. A., Combs, D. J., & Schurtz, D. R. (2009). Exploring the when and why of schadenfreude. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3(4), 530-546.
67. Sung, H., Mills, B. M., & Tainsky, S. (2017). From schadenfreude to mitfreude? Estimating viewership loss and rivalrous relationships in otherwise neutral markets. Sport Management Review, 20(2), 159-169.
68. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. 1986. The social identity of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations: (pp. 7–24). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
69. The Athletic (2023, 21 March). Derby days, Rome: Derby della Capitale. Retrieved November 30, 2024, from https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/4317699/2023/03/21/derby-days-rome-lazio-roma/
70. The Guardian (2021, 17 April). Kung-fu kicks and riot police: The day Maradona got Barça brawling. Retrieved December 14, 2024, from https://www.theguardian.com/football/2021/apr/17/kung-fu-kicks-riot-police-maradona-barcelona-brawl-athletic-bilbao-copa-del-rey
71. TRT Haber (2022, 20 December). Karşıyaka'ya stat müjdesi. Retrieved January 19, 2023, https://www.trthaber.com/haber/spor/karsiyakaya-stat-mujdesi-732212.html
72. Tunç, S. (2011). Trabzon’da futbolun tarihi: Mektepliler, münevverler, meraklılar. İletişim Publication.
73. Tuncay, B. (2002). Galatasaray Tarihi: Avrupa zaferleriyle unutulmaz yıldızlarıyla. Yapı Kredi Publication.
74. Tyler, B.D., Cobbs, J., Nichols, B.S. & Dalakas, V. (2021). Schadenfreude, rivalry antecedents, and the role of perceived sincerity in sponsorship of sport rivalries. Journal of Business Research, 124(1), 708-719.
75. van Dijk W.W., Ouwerkerk J.W., Smith R.H. & Cikara M. (2015). The role of self-evaluation and envy in schadenfreude. European Review of Social Psychology, 26(1), 247-282.
76. van Dijk, W. W. & Ouwerkerk, J. W. (2014). Schadenfreude: Understanding pleasure at the misfortune of others. Cambridge University Press.
77. Weber, R., Brand, A., Niemann A. and Koch, F. (2020). Non-elite conceptions of Europe: Europe as a reference frame in English football fan discussions. Journal of Contemporary European Research, 16(3): 293-319. https://doi.org/10.30950/jcer.v16i3.1089
78. Wei, L. & Liu, B. (2020). Reactions to others’ misfortune on social media: Effects of homophily and publicness on schadenfreude, empathy, and perceived deservingness. Computers in Human Behavior, 102, 1-13.
79. Xu, E., Huang, X., Jia, R., Xu, J., Liu, W., Graham, L., & Snape, E. (2020). The “evil pleasure”: Abusive supervision and third-party observers’ malicious reactions toward victims. Organization Science, 31(5), 1115–1137.
80. Yavuz, C. (2007, 14 December). Dostumun düşmanı düşmanımdır! Retrieved April 26, 2023, from https://www.odatv4.com/siyaset/dostumun-dusmani-dusmanimdir-1412071200-635 Yıldırım, Y. & Uçar, M. (2009). Sıcağıyla acısıyla Adana futbolu. İletişim Publication
81. Yip, J. A., Schweitzer, M. E., & Nurmohamed, S. (2018). Trash-talking: Competitive incivility motivates rivalry, performance, and unethical behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 144(2018), 125-144.
82. Yong, A. G. & Pearce, S. (2013). A beginner’s guide to factor analysis: Focusing on exploratory factor analysis. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 9(2), 79-94.
83. Yu, T. & Cannella, A. A. (2007). Rivalry between multinational enterprises: An event history approach. Academy of Management Journal, 50(3), 663-684.