Araştırma Makalesi
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Tarihin Tekrar Yazılması Ve Suçun Başkasının Üzerine Atılması: Katyń Katliamları (1940) Ve Ermeni Sevk Ve İskânı (1915) Arasında Karşılaştırmalı Bir Çalışma

Yıl 2019, Sayı: 39, 37 - 68, 31.07.2019

Öz

On dokuzuncu ve
yirminci yüzyılda farklı uluslar, kendi ulus inşası süreçlerine başladılar. Bu
ulus oluşturma süreci başlangıçta, ulusun kendi tarihsel olaylarını yücelterek
birlik oluşturmayı çalışmıştır. Bir başka bir yöntemse, bazı olayları
yüceltirken diğer tarihsel olayları ihmal veya inkâr etmek olmuştur. Özellikle
o dönem bağımsızlığına kavuşan uluslar, çok sayıda savaş suçunun işlendiği iki
dünya savaşı sırasında büyük çatışmalar yaşamışlardır. Bu "lekeli
dönemden" kendilerine temiz ve ak bir sayfayla başlangıç yapmak için,
özellikle bağımsızlıklarına ulaştıkları dönemlerde yaşadıkları tarihsel
olayları yüceltmek veya tam tersi ihmal etmek istemişlerdir. Dolayısıyla bu
aşamada ihmal etmek, ardından inkâr etmek ve son olarak da tarihi yeniden
yazmak gibi üç yöntem uygulanmıştır. Tarihi tamamen yeniden yazma yönetime
başvuran uluslar az sayıda olmuştur. Fakat özellikle iki dünya savaşının
ardından yeni kurulan uluslar, bağımsızlıklarını sürdürmek için savaşmak
zorunda kaldıkları ve şiddetli bir dönem yaşadıkları için, bu yönteme başvurmuşlardır.
Bu dönem, ortaya koydukları "asil ulus" tablosuna uymadığı için, o
dönem yaşananları bilinçli olarak farklı bir şekilde anlatmak için büyük uğraş
göstermişlerdir. Bu uğraş içerisinde, bağlı oldukları devletten kopup kendi
ulus-devletlerini kurabilmek için uyguladıkları savaş ve şiddet doğrultusunda
bunu farklı anlatmayı daha uygun gösterip bu savaşın "adaletli bir
mücadele" olduğunu göstermeye çalışmışlardır. Böylece suç işleyen taraftan
mağdur olmuş veya kahraman taraf olmayı çalışmışlardır. Bunun iki en belirgin
örneğiyse, Birinci Dünya Savaşı sırasında (1914-1918) Osmanlı Devleti'ne karşı
ayaklanan Ermeniler ile 1939-1945 arasında gerçekleşen İkinci Dünya Savaşı
sırasında, Polonya'da katliam uygulayan Sovyet Ruslarıdır. Her iki olayda da
vahşet saçan taraf kendi ulusunu mağdur ve kahraman göstermeye çalışmıştır. Bu
iki konuyu araştırıp karşılaştırarak, ulus inşası çabası sürecinde tarihi
yeniden yazma yöntemi uygulanan uluslar hakkında taslak ve aşamaları
belirlemeye çalışan bir ön araştırma için uygun bir başlangıç yapılması
amaçlanmaktadır.

Kaynakça

  • “Decision To Commence Investigation Into Katyn Massacre,” Institute of National Remembrance, November 30, 2004, accessed June 25, 2019, http://ipn.gov.pl/en/news/77,dok.html
  • Almond, Gabriel & Lucian Pye. Comparative Political Culture. Princeton, 1965.
  • Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, 2nd edition. London: Verso, 1983/1991.
  • Barth, Fredrik. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. Boston, 1969.
  • Brown, Archie. The Rise and Fall of Communism. New York, 2009.
  • Cassirer, Ernst. The Myth Of The State, 4th Edition. London: Yale University Press, 2009.
  • Cienciala, Anna M. & Wojciech Materski. Katyn: A Crime Without Punishment. London: Yale University Press, 2007.
  • Cienciala, Anna M. “The Katyn Syndrome.” The Russian Review 65, no. 1 (2006).
  • Coatney, Louis Robert. “The Katyn Massacre: A Master of Arts Thesis.” Western Illinois University (Illinois/USA, 1993).
  • Collins, Adrian & Arthur de Gobineau. The Inequality of Human Races. Charleston, 1855/2010.
  • de Gobineau, Arthur. Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines. Paris, 1853-1855/1999.
  • Dyer, Gwynne. “Turkish 'Falsifiers' and Armenian 'Deceivers': Historiography and the Armenian Massacres.” Middle Eastern Studies 12, no. 1 (1976).
  • Engel, David. Facing A Holocaust: The Polish Government-In-Exile And The Jews, 1943-1945. North Carolina/USA, 1993).
  • Eriksen, Thomas Hylland. Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological Perspectives. London: Pluto Press, 1993.
  • Fischer, Benjamin B. “The Katyn Controversy: Stalin's Killing Field.” Studies in Intelligence (1999-2000).
  • Geary, Patrick J. The Myth of Nations: The Medieval Origins of Europe. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003.
  • Gmyz, Cezary. “1.8 mln polskich ofiar Stalina.” Rzeczpospolita, 2009, accessed July 23, 2019. https://www.rp.pl/artykul/365363-1-8-mln-polskich-ofiar-Stalina.html Gökalp, Ziya. Türkçülüğün Esasları. İstanbul, 1923/2001.
  • Hayes, Carlton. The Historical Evolution of Modern Nationalism. New York, 1931.
  • Hewitson, Mark. “Conclusion: Nationalism and the Nineteenth Century.” In What Is a Nation? Europe 1789-1914, Timothy Baycroft & Mark Hewitson (eds.), 312-355. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
  • Higham, Nicholas J. King Arthur, Myth-Making and History. London: Routledge, 2002.
  • History Museum of Armenia, Հայաստանի պատմության թանգարան (Yerevan, 2014).
  • Hobsbawm, Eric & Terence Ranger (eds.). The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
  • Hobsbawm, Eric. Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
  • Holdwater. “Armenian Forgeries and Falsifications.” Tall Armenian Tale, accessed June 25, 2019. http://www.tallarmeniantale.com/forgeries.htm.
  • İhsanoğlu, Ekmeleddin. History of the Ottoman State, Society & Civilisation, Volume I. Istanbul, 2001.
  • Iordachi, Constantin. “The Making of Citizenship in the post-Ottoman Balkans: State Building, Foreign Models, and Legal-Political Transfers.” In Ottomans into Europeans: State and Institution-Building in South Eastern Europe, Wim van Meurs & Alina Mungiu-Pippidi (eds.): 179-220. London: Hurst, 2010.
  • Iordachi, Constantin. “The Ottoman Empire: Syncretic Nationalism and Citizenship in the Balkans.” In What Is a Nation? Europe 1789-1914, Timothy Baycroft & Mark Hewitson (eds.), 120-151. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
  • Katchaznouni, Hovhannes, Mehmet Perinçek (ed.) & Lale Akalın (tr.). Dashnagtzoutiun Has Nothing To Do Anymore: Report Submitted to the 1923 Party Convention. Istanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, 2007.
  • Kużniar-Plota, Małgorzata. “Decision To Commence Investigation Into Katyn Massacre.” Departmental Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation, 2004.
  • Lipski, Jan Józef. KOR: A History Of The Workers' Defense Committee In Poland, 1976-1981. Berkeley, 1985.
  • Łojek, Bożena. Muzeum Katyńskie w Warszawie, Agencja Wydawm. CB Andrzej Zasieczny, 2000.
  • Meinecke, Friedrich. Weltbürgertum und Nationalstaat: Studien zur Genesis des deutschen Nationalstaates. Munchen, 1922.
  • Meltiukhov, Mikhail. Отчёт Украинского и Белорусского фронтов Красной Армии. Moscow, 2010.
  • Nalbandian, Louise. The Armenian Revolutionary Movement: The Development of Armenian Political Parties Through the Nineteenth Century. California/USA, 1963.
  • Ouimet, Matthew J. The Rise And Fall Of The Brezhnev Doctrine In Soviet Foreign Policy. North Carolina/USA, 2003.
  • Özcan, Almıla Gökçe. “XVI. Yüzyılın İkinci Yarısında Osmanlı Devleti’nde Vergi Muâfiyeti: Derbendçilik.” Akademik Bakış 11, no. 22 (Summer, 2018).
  • Özkırımlı, Umut. Theories of Nationalism: A critical introduction, 2nd Revised and Extended Edition. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
  • Rieber, Alfred J. Forced Migration In Central And Eastern Europe, 1939-1950. London: Frank Cass Publishers, 2000.
  • Roberts, Geoffrey. Stalin's Wars: from World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. London: Yale University Press, 2006. Sağ, Armand. “Armand Sağ vanuit Armenië: Vol spanning op het vliegtuig.” AIP, May 26, 2014.
  • Sağ, Armand. “Categorizing Historiography: Turkish-Armenian Relations Throughout History.” Review of Armenian Studies, no. 26 (2012).
  • Sağ, Armand. “De Eerste Wereldoorlog: Armeense Opstanden.” ArmandSag.com, 2009, accessed June 25, 2019. http://www.armandsag.nl/artikelen/De%20Eerste%20Wereldoorlog%20-%20Armeense%20Opstanden.html
  • Sağ, Armand. “The perfect ethnocide: A review of Bas Kromhout’s ‘De perfecte genocide’.” Review of Armenian Studies, no. 31 (2015).
  • Sağ, Armand. Nation-Building And Historiography In Modern Turkey. Utrecht: U2pi BV, 2015.
  • Sanford, George. Katyn and the Soviet Massacre of 1940: Truth, Justice and Memory. Oxford: Routledge, 2005.
  • Smith, Anthony D. Ethno-Symbolism and Nationalism: A Cultural Approach. New York: Routledge, 2009.
  • Smith, Anthony D. National Identity. London: Penguin Book, 1991.
  • Snyder, Louis. The Meaning of Nationalism. New Brunswick/Canada, 1954.
  • Swietochowski, Tadeusz. Russian Azerbaijan (1905-1920): The Shaping Of A National Identity In A Muslim Community. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
  • Szarota, Tomasz & Wojciech Materski. Polska 1939-1945. Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami. Warsaw, 2009.
  • Toynbee, Arnold. A Study of History. Oxford, 1939.
  • Turan, Şerafettin. Türk Devrim Tarihi: 1. Kitap - İmparatorluğun Çöküşünden Ulusal Direnişe, 3. Basım. Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi, 1991/2008.
  • Turan, Şerafettin. Türk Devrim Tarihi: 2. Kitap - Ulusal Direnişten Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’ne, 3. Basım. Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi, 1992/2009.
  • Turan, Şerafettin. Türk Devrim Tarihi: 3. Kitap (Birinci Bölüm) - Yeni Türkiye’nin Oluşumu (1923-1938), 2. Basım. Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi, 1995/2005.
  • Ünlü, Mahir & Yusuf Çotuksöken. Türkçülüğün Esasları (Günümüz Türkçesiyle). İstanbul, 2001.
  • Wajda, Andrzej. Katyń. ITI Cinema, 2007. 115 minutes.
  • Weinberg, Gerhard. A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  • Yalçın, Durmuş, Yaşar Akbıyık, Dursun Ali Akbulut, Mustafa Balcıoğlu, Nuri Köstüklü, Süslü, N., Refik Turan, Cezmi Eraslan & Mehmet Akif Tural. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Tarihi I. Ankara: Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi, 2014.
  • Yazhborovskaja, Inessa Sergeevna, Anatoly Yablokov & Valentina S. Parsadanova. Катынский синдром в советско-польских и российско-польских отношениях. Moscow, 2001.

Rewriting History And Passing Blame: A Comparative Study Between The Katyń Massacres (1940) And The Armenian Relocation (1915)

Yıl 2019, Sayı: 39, 37 - 68, 31.07.2019

Öz

During the nineteenth and twentieth century, different
nations initiated their own nation-building process. In early processes of
nation-building, the focus was on glorifying existing events to create unity.
There are; however, cases in which the focus shifted from glorifying past
events into neglecting or even denying events. This was especially the case for
newly established nations who witnessed major conflict during the two world
wars in which multiple war crimes were committed. In order to not “taint” their
independence with such mishaps, the committed atrocities were subsequently
downplayed, neglected, or even (in the most extreme situation) subjected to
complete rewriting of history. Few nations have resorted to engaging in
complete rewriting of history. Nations that rose from the ashes of the two
world wars often had a big part in the violence since they had to fight their
way to their independence. Hence, they resorted to complete rewriting of
history. Since newly established nations preferred to start of their newly
reached independence with the thought of being "a noble people" not
capable of vile actions against other nations, they exerted much effort into
narrating in an alternative manner what happened during the previous period. Nations
justified their struggle for independence by pointing out that they were
victims of other nations that were oppressing them. Two clear examples for this
were the Armenians during their war effort against the Ottoman Empire during
World War One (1914-1918); and the Soviet Russians in Poland during Second
World War (1939-1945). In both events, the perpetrators tried (and still try)
to shift their role in the events from committing atrocities, to victims and
heroes. A comparative look into the two case studies will be a good start for a
preliminary research in which an outline and model will be determined for
nations who have resorted to rewriting history in the process of nation
building.

Kaynakça

  • “Decision To Commence Investigation Into Katyn Massacre,” Institute of National Remembrance, November 30, 2004, accessed June 25, 2019, http://ipn.gov.pl/en/news/77,dok.html
  • Almond, Gabriel & Lucian Pye. Comparative Political Culture. Princeton, 1965.
  • Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, 2nd edition. London: Verso, 1983/1991.
  • Barth, Fredrik. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. Boston, 1969.
  • Brown, Archie. The Rise and Fall of Communism. New York, 2009.
  • Cassirer, Ernst. The Myth Of The State, 4th Edition. London: Yale University Press, 2009.
  • Cienciala, Anna M. & Wojciech Materski. Katyn: A Crime Without Punishment. London: Yale University Press, 2007.
  • Cienciala, Anna M. “The Katyn Syndrome.” The Russian Review 65, no. 1 (2006).
  • Coatney, Louis Robert. “The Katyn Massacre: A Master of Arts Thesis.” Western Illinois University (Illinois/USA, 1993).
  • Collins, Adrian & Arthur de Gobineau. The Inequality of Human Races. Charleston, 1855/2010.
  • de Gobineau, Arthur. Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines. Paris, 1853-1855/1999.
  • Dyer, Gwynne. “Turkish 'Falsifiers' and Armenian 'Deceivers': Historiography and the Armenian Massacres.” Middle Eastern Studies 12, no. 1 (1976).
  • Engel, David. Facing A Holocaust: The Polish Government-In-Exile And The Jews, 1943-1945. North Carolina/USA, 1993).
  • Eriksen, Thomas Hylland. Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological Perspectives. London: Pluto Press, 1993.
  • Fischer, Benjamin B. “The Katyn Controversy: Stalin's Killing Field.” Studies in Intelligence (1999-2000).
  • Geary, Patrick J. The Myth of Nations: The Medieval Origins of Europe. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003.
  • Gmyz, Cezary. “1.8 mln polskich ofiar Stalina.” Rzeczpospolita, 2009, accessed July 23, 2019. https://www.rp.pl/artykul/365363-1-8-mln-polskich-ofiar-Stalina.html Gökalp, Ziya. Türkçülüğün Esasları. İstanbul, 1923/2001.
  • Hayes, Carlton. The Historical Evolution of Modern Nationalism. New York, 1931.
  • Hewitson, Mark. “Conclusion: Nationalism and the Nineteenth Century.” In What Is a Nation? Europe 1789-1914, Timothy Baycroft & Mark Hewitson (eds.), 312-355. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
  • Higham, Nicholas J. King Arthur, Myth-Making and History. London: Routledge, 2002.
  • History Museum of Armenia, Հայաստանի պատմության թանգարան (Yerevan, 2014).
  • Hobsbawm, Eric & Terence Ranger (eds.). The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
  • Hobsbawm, Eric. Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
  • Holdwater. “Armenian Forgeries and Falsifications.” Tall Armenian Tale, accessed June 25, 2019. http://www.tallarmeniantale.com/forgeries.htm.
  • İhsanoğlu, Ekmeleddin. History of the Ottoman State, Society & Civilisation, Volume I. Istanbul, 2001.
  • Iordachi, Constantin. “The Making of Citizenship in the post-Ottoman Balkans: State Building, Foreign Models, and Legal-Political Transfers.” In Ottomans into Europeans: State and Institution-Building in South Eastern Europe, Wim van Meurs & Alina Mungiu-Pippidi (eds.): 179-220. London: Hurst, 2010.
  • Iordachi, Constantin. “The Ottoman Empire: Syncretic Nationalism and Citizenship in the Balkans.” In What Is a Nation? Europe 1789-1914, Timothy Baycroft & Mark Hewitson (eds.), 120-151. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
  • Katchaznouni, Hovhannes, Mehmet Perinçek (ed.) & Lale Akalın (tr.). Dashnagtzoutiun Has Nothing To Do Anymore: Report Submitted to the 1923 Party Convention. Istanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, 2007.
  • Kużniar-Plota, Małgorzata. “Decision To Commence Investigation Into Katyn Massacre.” Departmental Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation, 2004.
  • Lipski, Jan Józef. KOR: A History Of The Workers' Defense Committee In Poland, 1976-1981. Berkeley, 1985.
  • Łojek, Bożena. Muzeum Katyńskie w Warszawie, Agencja Wydawm. CB Andrzej Zasieczny, 2000.
  • Meinecke, Friedrich. Weltbürgertum und Nationalstaat: Studien zur Genesis des deutschen Nationalstaates. Munchen, 1922.
  • Meltiukhov, Mikhail. Отчёт Украинского и Белорусского фронтов Красной Армии. Moscow, 2010.
  • Nalbandian, Louise. The Armenian Revolutionary Movement: The Development of Armenian Political Parties Through the Nineteenth Century. California/USA, 1963.
  • Ouimet, Matthew J. The Rise And Fall Of The Brezhnev Doctrine In Soviet Foreign Policy. North Carolina/USA, 2003.
  • Özcan, Almıla Gökçe. “XVI. Yüzyılın İkinci Yarısında Osmanlı Devleti’nde Vergi Muâfiyeti: Derbendçilik.” Akademik Bakış 11, no. 22 (Summer, 2018).
  • Özkırımlı, Umut. Theories of Nationalism: A critical introduction, 2nd Revised and Extended Edition. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
  • Rieber, Alfred J. Forced Migration In Central And Eastern Europe, 1939-1950. London: Frank Cass Publishers, 2000.
  • Roberts, Geoffrey. Stalin's Wars: from World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. London: Yale University Press, 2006. Sağ, Armand. “Armand Sağ vanuit Armenië: Vol spanning op het vliegtuig.” AIP, May 26, 2014.
  • Sağ, Armand. “Categorizing Historiography: Turkish-Armenian Relations Throughout History.” Review of Armenian Studies, no. 26 (2012).
  • Sağ, Armand. “De Eerste Wereldoorlog: Armeense Opstanden.” ArmandSag.com, 2009, accessed June 25, 2019. http://www.armandsag.nl/artikelen/De%20Eerste%20Wereldoorlog%20-%20Armeense%20Opstanden.html
  • Sağ, Armand. “The perfect ethnocide: A review of Bas Kromhout’s ‘De perfecte genocide’.” Review of Armenian Studies, no. 31 (2015).
  • Sağ, Armand. Nation-Building And Historiography In Modern Turkey. Utrecht: U2pi BV, 2015.
  • Sanford, George. Katyn and the Soviet Massacre of 1940: Truth, Justice and Memory. Oxford: Routledge, 2005.
  • Smith, Anthony D. Ethno-Symbolism and Nationalism: A Cultural Approach. New York: Routledge, 2009.
  • Smith, Anthony D. National Identity. London: Penguin Book, 1991.
  • Snyder, Louis. The Meaning of Nationalism. New Brunswick/Canada, 1954.
  • Swietochowski, Tadeusz. Russian Azerbaijan (1905-1920): The Shaping Of A National Identity In A Muslim Community. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
  • Szarota, Tomasz & Wojciech Materski. Polska 1939-1945. Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami. Warsaw, 2009.
  • Toynbee, Arnold. A Study of History. Oxford, 1939.
  • Turan, Şerafettin. Türk Devrim Tarihi: 1. Kitap - İmparatorluğun Çöküşünden Ulusal Direnişe, 3. Basım. Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi, 1991/2008.
  • Turan, Şerafettin. Türk Devrim Tarihi: 2. Kitap - Ulusal Direnişten Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’ne, 3. Basım. Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi, 1992/2009.
  • Turan, Şerafettin. Türk Devrim Tarihi: 3. Kitap (Birinci Bölüm) - Yeni Türkiye’nin Oluşumu (1923-1938), 2. Basım. Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi, 1995/2005.
  • Ünlü, Mahir & Yusuf Çotuksöken. Türkçülüğün Esasları (Günümüz Türkçesiyle). İstanbul, 2001.
  • Wajda, Andrzej. Katyń. ITI Cinema, 2007. 115 minutes.
  • Weinberg, Gerhard. A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  • Yalçın, Durmuş, Yaşar Akbıyık, Dursun Ali Akbulut, Mustafa Balcıoğlu, Nuri Köstüklü, Süslü, N., Refik Turan, Cezmi Eraslan & Mehmet Akif Tural. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Tarihi I. Ankara: Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi, 2014.
  • Yazhborovskaja, Inessa Sergeevna, Anatoly Yablokov & Valentina S. Parsadanova. Катынский синдром в советско-польских и российско-польских отношениях. Moscow, 2001.
Toplam 58 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Bölüm Research Article
Yazarlar

Armand Sağ Bu kişi benim 0000-0003-1686-2513

Yayımlanma Tarihi 31 Temmuz 2019
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2019 Sayı: 39

Kaynak Göster

Chicago Sağ, Armand. “Rewriting History And Passing Blame: A Comparative Study Between The Katyń Massacres (1940) And The Armenian Relocation (1915)”. Review of Armenian Studies, sy. 39 (Temmuz 2019): 37-68.