ABD’de Müslüman Karşıtı Nefret: Ayrımcılığa Uğrayan Müslüman Çiftler için Çift Terapisi Uygulamaları

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 7 Sayı: 1, 7 - 21, 15.02.2022

Emel Genç

https://doi.org/10.37898/spc.2022.7.1.163

Öz

Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nde artan Müslüman nüfusla birlikte, İslamofobi ve Müslümanlara yönelik ayrımcı eylemler artmaktadır. Medyada yer alan olumsuz imajlar sonucunda İslam hakkındaki artan kalıp yargılar Müslüman bireyleri, çiftleri ve aileleri etkilemektedir. İslamofobinin bireylere yönelik etkisi alanyazında yoğun bir şekilde çalışılmış olmasına rağmen, dini inançları nedeniyle ayrımcılığa uğrayan Müslüman çiftelere yönelik çalışmalar yeterince yapılmamıştır. Halbuki, bireylerin toplumda maruz kaldığı dışlanma ve olumsuzluk deneyimlerinin çift ve aile ilişkilerini derinden etkilemesi beklenir. Alandaki bu eksiklik, ayrımcılığa uğrayan Müslüman çiftlerle çalışan ruh sağlığı uzmanlarını gerekli yardımı sağlama konusunda hazırlıksız bırakmaktadır. Bu nedenle, bu çalışmanın amacı, Müslümanları ve onların ABD’deki deneyimlerini tanıtmak, daha sonra Müslüman çiftlerin ilişkilerinde yaşadıkları sorunları tartışarak çift terapistlerine kültürel açıdan yetkin uygulamalar konusunda rehberlik edecek bir kaynak sağlamaktır.

Anti-Muslim Hatred in the U.S.: Couple Therapy Implications for Discriminated Muslim Couples

Öz

With the growing Muslim population in the United States, Islamophobia and discriminatory acts toward Muslims have been increasing. Negative images in the media, which have strengthened stereotypes about Islam, have affected Muslim individuals, couples, and families. Although the impact of islamophobia has been addressed for individuals, not enough attention has been paid to Muslim couples who experience discrimination due to their religious beliefs. Experience of harassment and negativity is likely to profoundly affect individuals’ couple and family relationships. This lack of research may leave mental health professionals unprepared to sufficiently help Muslim couples that encounter discrimination. Thus, the present study discusses Muslims and their experiences in the U. S. before considering important concerns about couple relationships for mental health professionals working with this population. The purpose is to provide guidance and possible strategies to assist couple therapists for culturally competent practice with Muslim couples.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Couple therapy, Culturally sensitive therapy, Discrimination, Islamophobia, Muslim couples

Kaynakça

• Abbas, M., Sitharthan, G., Hough, M. J., & Hossain, S. Z. (2018). An exploratory study of acculturation among Muslims in Australia. Social Identities, 24(6), 764–778. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2018.1500279
• Abdelkader, E. (2016). When Islamophobia turns violent: The 2016 U.S. presidential elections. Washington, DC: Georgetown University. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2779201
• Abdullah, Q. D. (2017). Marital satisfaction and religiosity in the African-American Muslim community. (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (Accession Order No. 10267048). presidential elections. Washington, DC.
• Abu-Ras, W. M., & Suarez, Z. E. (2009). Muslim men and women’s perception of discrimination, hate crimes, and PTSD symptoms post September 11. Traumatology, 15(3), 48-63.
• Ahmed, S. R., Kia-Keating, M., & Tsai, K. H. (2011). A structural model of racial discrimination, acculturative stress, and cultural resources among Arab American adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 48, 181–192.
• Alshugairi, N. (2010). Marital trends in the American Muslim community: A pilot study. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 5(3), 256-277.
• Al Wekhian, J. (2015). Acculturation process of Arab-Muslim immigrants in the United States. Asian Culture and History, 8(1), 89. https://doi.org/10.5539/ach.v8n1p89
• Amer, M. M. &Bagasra, A. (2013). Psychological research with Muslim Americans in the age of Islamophobia. American Psychological Association, 68(3), 134-144. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032167
• Amer, M. M., & Hovey, J. D. (2012). Anxiety and depression in a post-September 11 sample of Arabs in the USA. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47, 409–418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-011-0341-4.
• Aroian, K. J. (2012). Discrimination against Muslim American adolescents. The Journal of School Nursing, 28, 206-203.
• Awad, G. H. (2010). The impact of acculturation and religious identification on perceived discrimination for Arab/Middle Eastern Americans. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16(1), 59–67. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0016675
• Azzaoui, M. (2009). Similarities in difference: the challenge of Muslim integration in Germany and the United States. AICGS Issue Brief, 33, 1–8.
• Bakalian, A., &Bozorgmehr, M. (2011). Middle Eastern and Muslim American studies since 9/11. Sociological Form, 26 (3). 714-728.
• Baptist, J., Craig, B., Nicholson, B. (2018). Black–White Marriages: The Moderating Role of Openness on Experience of Couple Discrimination and Marital Satisfaction. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 00, 1–15.
• BBC News (2018, June 26). Trump travel ban: What does this ruling mean?. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-39044403
• Berry, J.W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46, 5–68.
• Berry, J.W. (2003). Conceptual approaches to acculturation. In K. Chun, P. Balls-Organista, & G. Marin (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement and applied research (pp. 17– 37). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Brown, E., Orbuch, T. L., & Bauermeister, J. A. (2008). Religiosity and marital stability among Black American and White American couples. Family Relations, 57, 186–197. doi:10.1111/ j.1741–3729.2008.00493.
• Chan, E. W. L. (2018). Positive psychology couple therapy. Journal of Positive Psychology & Psychotherapy &Psychotherapy, (8), ISSN: 2161-0487, p. 11. doi:10.4172/2161-0487-C1-024
• Chapman, A. R. (2014). Marital Power and Marital Satisfaction among American Muslims (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from http://ebot.gmu.edu/bitstream/handle/1920/8832/Chapman_gmu_0883E_10524.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
• Christmas, C. N., & Barker, G. G. (2014). The immigrant experience: Differences in acculturation, intercultural sensitivity, and cognitive flexibility between the first and second generation of Latino immigrants. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, 7(3), 238–257. https://doi.org/10.1080/17513057.2014.929202
• Chudek, M., Cheung, B. Y., & Heine, S. J. (2015). US immigrants’ patterns of acculturation are sensitive to their age, language, and cultural contact but show no evidence of a sensitive window for acculturation. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 15(1-2), 174–190. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685373-12342145
• Connor, P., & Krogstad, J. M. (2016). About six-in-ten Syrians are now displaced from their homes. Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/13/about-six-in-ten-syrians-arenow-displaced-from-their-homes/
• Cox, D. W., Buhr, E. E., Owen, J. J., & Davidson, E. (2016). Linking partner emotional support, partner negative interaction, and trauma with psychological distress: Direct and moderating effects. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 33(3), 303-319.
• De, J. G., Van, d. P., & Keating, N. (2015). Loneliness of older immigrant groups in Canada: Effects of ethnic-cultural background. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 30(3), 251-268.
• Dellal, H. (2004). Of ‘middle eastern appearance’: Police and Muslim communities in Australia. Around the Globe,1(3), 14-17.
• DeSilver, D. (2015). U.S. public seldom has welcomed refugees into country. Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/11/19/u-s-public-seldom-haswelcomed-refugees-into-country/
• Duba, J. D., & Watts, R.E. (2009). Therapy with religious couples. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65 2, 210-23.
• Every, D., & Perry, R. (2014). The relationship between perceived religious discrimination and self‐esteem for Muslim Australians. Australian Journal of Psychology, 66(4), 241–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12067
• Falicov, C. J. (2014). Latino families in therapy (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
• Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2016). Hate crimes against Muslims in US surge 67 percent. FBI Statistics. http://wwwfbi.gov/stories/
• Fozdar, F. (2011). Social cohesion and skilled Muslim refugees in Australia: Employment, social capital and discrimination. Journal of Sociology, 48(2), 167-186.
• Gamarel, K. E., Reisner, S. L., Laurenceau, J. P., Nemoto, T., &Operario, D. (2014). Gender minority stress, mental health, and relationship quality: A dyadic investigation of transgender women and their cisgender male partners. Journal of Family Psychology, 28, 437–447.
• Genc, E., & Baptist, J. (2020). Muslim couples: The effects of perceived religion-based discrimination on relationship satisfaction. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 14(2). doi:10.3998/jmmh.10381607.0014.204
• Genc, E., & Su, Y. (2021). Black and White couples: Exploring the role of religiosity on perceived racial discrimination and relationship satisfaction, The American Journal of Family Therapy, https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2021.1958269
• Genc, E. (2021). Transforming stress to happiness: Positive couple therapy with distressed couples. Journal of Happiness and Health, 1(1), 3-11.