A Literature Review of Studies on Resilience, Risk, and Protective Factors

Yıl 2007, Cilt: 3 Sayı: 28, 113 - 128, 11.06.2007

Cem Gizir

Öz

The construct of resilience and its implications for studies of at-risk children has been focus of growing
attention from researchers over the past 30 years. Moreover, theoretical and empirical investigations have
examined a wide range of psychosocial contributors to this construct. Trends in resilience research are shifting from identifying characteristics of children who are resilient in the face of adversity to identifying processes that promote resilience under different adverse conditions. Besides, professionals attempt to develop, implement and evaluate several prevention programs to reduce the future incidence of risks on children. However, research focusing on resilience has recently begun to grow in Turkey. Thus, based on the available literature, this study aims to examine studies on resilience, risk and protective factors and to call researchers’ attention related with the importance of the studies on children and adolescents struggling to overcome risk or adverse life circumstances in Turkey.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Resilience, risk, protective factors, positive adaptation

Psikolojik Sağlamlık, Risk Faktörleri ve Koruyucu Faktörler Üzerine Bir Derleme Çalışması

Öz

Psikolojik saglamlık kavramı ve bu kavramın risk altındaki çocuklar üzerine yapılan çalısmalara etkileri
arastırmacılar tarafından son otuz yılda giderek artan bir ilgi odagı haline gelmeye baslamıs, kuramsal
ve görgül çalısmalar ile bu kavramı açıklamaya katkıda bulunan birçok psikososyal faktör incelenmistir. Son
dönemde, psikolojik saglamlık arastırmalarındaki egilim zorlu yasam kosullarındaki saglam çocukların özelliklerini
belirlemekten öteye geçerek, farklı olumsuz kosullarda psikolojik saglamlıgın gelismesine yardımcı
olan süreçleri belirlemeye yönelmektedir. Buna ek olarak uzmanlar, mevcut risklerin gelecekte çocuklar
üzerindeki etkilerini azaltmaya yönelik çesitli önleyici programlar gelistirmeye, uygulamaya ve bu programları
degerlendirmeye çalısmaktadırlar. Bununla birlikte, ülkemizde psikolojik saglamlık olgusu üzerine yapılan
çalısmalara son yıllarda rastlanmaya baslanmıstır. Türkiye’de bu konuyu ele alan çalısmaların az olması dikkate
alındıgında bu çalısmanın amacı, psikolojik saglamlık, risk faktörleri ve koruyucu faktörler üzerine
yapılan çesitli çalısmaları irdeleyerek, psikolojik saglamlıgın ülkemizde risk ya da zorlu yasam ortamlarında
yetisen çocuk ve ergenlere yönelik çalısmalardaki önemine dikkat çekmek ve bu konuda temel bir bakıs açısı
olusturmaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Psikolojik sağlamlık, risk, koruyucu faktörler, olumlu uyum gösterme

Kaynakça

• Adger, W. N. (2000). Social and ecological resilience: are they related? Progress in Human Goography, 24(3), 347-364.
• Agabi, C. E. ve Wilson, J. P. (2005). Trauma, PTSD, and resilience. Trauma,Violence, and Abuse, 6(3), 195-216.
• Alva, S. A. (1991). Academic invulnerability among Mexican-American students: The importance of protective resources and appraisals. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 13(1), 18-34.
• Beauvais, F. ve Qetting, E. R. (1999). Drug use, resilience, and the myth of the golden child. (Ed: M. D. Glantz ve J. L Johnson) Resilience and development: Positive life adaptations. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
• Block, J. ve Kremen, A. M. (1996). IQ and ego-resiliency: Conceptual and empirical connections and seperateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(2), 349-361.
• Benard, B. (1991). Fostering resiliency in kids: Protective factors in the family, school, and community. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.
• Benard, B. (1993). Fostering resiliency in kids. Educational Leadership, 51(3), 44-48.
• Bolger, K. E., Patterson, C. J., Thompson W. W. ve Kupersmidt, J. B. (1995). Psychosocial adjustment among children experiencing persistent and intermittent family economic hardship. Child Development, 66, 1107-1129.
• Bradley, R. H., Whiteside, L. Munford, D. J., Casey, P. H., Kelleher, K. J. ve Pope, S. K. (1994). Early indications of resilience and their relation to experiences in the home environments of low birthweight, premature children living in poverty. Child Development, 65(2), 346-360.
• Brown, J. H., D’emidio-Caston, M. ve Benard, B. (2001). Resilience education, Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.
• Buckner, J. C., Mezzacappa, E. ve Beardslee, W. R. (2003). Characteristics of the resilient youths living in poverty: The role of self-regulatory processes. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 139-162.
• Caffo, E. ve Belaise, C. (2003). Psychological aspects of traumatic injury in children and adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 12, 493-535.
• Cappella, E. ve Rhona, W. (2001). Turning around reading achievement predictors of high school student’s academic resilience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(4), 758-771.
• Carpentieri, S. C., Mulhern, R. K., Douglas, S., Hanna, S. ve Fairdough, J. (1993). Behavioral resiliency among children surviving brain tumors. The neuropsychological basis of disorders affecting children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22, 236-246.
• Chen, J. ve George, R. A. (2005). Cultivating resilience in children from divorced families. The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families, 13(4), 452-455.
• Chen, X., Li, D., Li, Z., Li, B. ve Liu, M. (2000). Sociable and prosocial competence in Chinese children: Common and unique contributions to social, academic, and psychological adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 36, 302-314.
• Criss, M. M., Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., Dodge, K. A. ve Lapp, A. L. (2002). Family adversity, positive peer relationship, and children’s externalizing behavior: A longitudinal perspective on risk and resilience. Child Development, 73, 1220-1237.
• Cowen, E. L., Work, W. C., Wyman, E. A., Parker, G. R., Wannon, M. ve Gribble, E. (1992). Test comparisons among stress-efffected, stress-resilient, and nonclassified fourth-through sixth-grade urban children. Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 200- 214.
• Dearden, J. (2004). Resilience : A study of risk and protective factors from the perspective of young people with experience of local authority care. Support for Learning, 19(4), 187-193.
• Doll, B. ve Lyon, M. A. (1998). Risk and resilience: Implications for the delivery of educational and mental health services in schools. School Psychology Review, 27(3), 348-363.
• Felsman, J. K. ve Vaillant, G. E. (1987). Resilient children as adults: A 40-year study. (Ed: E. J. Anthony ve B. J. Cohler) The Invulnerable Child. New York: The Guilford Press.
• Fraser, M. (1997). Risk and resilience in childhood: An ecological perspective. Washington, DC: NASW Press.
• Fraser, M. W., Richman, J. M. ve Galinsky, M. J. (1999). Risk, protection and resilience: toward a conceptual framework for social work practice. Social Work Research, 23, 129-208.
• Flores, E., Rogosch; F. A. ve Cicchetti, D. (2004). Predictiors of resilience inmaltreated and nonmaltreated Latino children. Developmental Psychology, 41(2), 338-351.
• Garmezy, N. ve Masten, A. S. (1986). Stress, competence, and resilience: Common frontiers for therapists and psychopathologist. Behavior Therapy, 57(2), 159-174.
• Garmezy, N., Masten, A. S. ve Tellegen, A. (1984). The study of stress and competence in children. A building block for developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 97-111.
• Gilligan, R. (2000). Adversity, resilience and young people: The protective value of positive school and spare time experiences. Child and Society, 14(1), 37-47.
• Gizir, C. A. (2004). Akademik sağlamlık: Yok- sulluk içindeki sekizinci sınıf öğrencilerinin akademik başarılarına katkıda bulunan koruyucu faktörlerin incelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara.
• Goodman, J. H. (2004). Coping with trauma and hardship among unaccompanied refugee youths from Sudan, Qualitative Health Research, 14(9), 1177- 1196.
• Gordon, E. W. ve Song, L. D. (1994). Variations in the experience of resilience. (Ed: M. C. Wang ve E. W. Gordon) Educational Resilience In Inner-City America: Challenges and Prospects. New Jersey: Lawrance Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
• Greeff, A. P. ve Ritman, I. N. (2005). Individual characteristics associated with resilience in single-parent families. Psychological Reports, 96(1), 36-42.
• Greene, R. (2002). Human behavior theory: A resilience orientation. (Ed: R. Greene) Resiliency: An integrated approach to practice, policy, and research. Washington, DC: NASW Press.
• Greene, R. ve Conrad, A. P. (2002). Basic assumptions and terms. (Ed: R. Greene) Resiliency: An integrated approach to practice, policy, and research. Washington, DC: NASW Press.
• Grizenko, N. ve Pawliuk, N. (1994). Risk and protective factors for disruptive behavior disorders in children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 64, 534-544.
• Henderson, N., Benard, B. ve Sharp-Light, N. (Ed). (2000). Schoolwide Approaches for Fostering Resiliency. California: Resiliency in Action, Inc.
• Joseph J. M. (1994). The resilient child: Preparing today's youth for tomorrow's world. Cambridge: Perseus Publishing.
• Kandel, E., Mednick, S. A., Kirkegaard- Sorensen, L., Hutchings, B., Knop, J., Rosenberg, R. ve Schulsinger, F. (1988). IQ as a protective factor for subjects at high risk for antisocial behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 224-226.
• Katz, M. (1997). On playing a poor hand well: Insights from the lives of those who have overcome childhood risks and adversities. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
• Kelly, T. B., Berman-Rossi, T. ve Palombo, S. (2001). Group work strategies for strengthening resiliency. New York: The Haworth Press.
• Kirby, L.D. ve Fraser, M. W. (1997). Risk and resilience in childhood. (Ed: M. Fraser) Risk and resilience in childhood. Washington, DC: NASW Press.
• Kline, B. E. ve Short, E. B. (1991). Changes in emotional resilience: Gifted adolescent boys. Roeper Review, 13, 184-187.
• Krovetz, M.L. (1999). Fostering Resiliency: Expecting All Students to Use their Minds and Hearts Well. California: Corwin Press, Inc.
• Kumpfer, K. L. (1999). Factors and processes contributing to resilience: the resilience framework. (Ed: M. D. Glantz ve J. L. Johnson) Resilience and development: Positive life adaptations. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
• Kumpfer, K. L. ve Barye, B. (2004).
• Parent/child transactional processes predictive of
• resilience or vulnerability to ‘substance abuse disorders.
• Substance Use and Misuse, 39, 671-698.
• Lansford, J. E., Patrick, S. M., Kristopher, I. S., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E. ve Pettit, G. S. (2006). Developmental trajectories of externalizing behaviors: Factors underlying resilience in physically abused children. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 35-55.
• Lewis, R. E. (2000). Resiliency: Pathway to protective factors and possibilities for self-righting narratives. (Ed: D. Capuzzi ve D. R. Gross) Youth at risk: A prevention resource for counselors, teachers, and parents. USA: American Counseling Association.
• Lin, K. K., Sandler, I. N., Ayers, T. S., Wolchik, S. A. ve Luecken, L. J. (2004). Resilience in parentally bereaved children and adolescents seeking preventive services. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(4), 673-683.
• Luthar, S. (1991). Vulnerability and resilience: A study of high-risk adolescents. Child Development, 62, 600-616.
• Luthar, S. (1999). Poverty and children’s adjustment. New-bury Park, CA: Sage.
• Luthar, S. (Ed.). (2003). Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Luthar, S. ve Cicchetti, D. (2000). The construct of resilience: Implications for interventions and social policies. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 857-885.
• Luthar, S., Cicchetti, D. ve Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71(3), Luthar, S. ve Cushing, G. (1999). Measurement issues in the empirical study of resilience : An overview. (Ed: M. D. Glantz ve J. L. Johnson) Resilience and development: Positive life adaptations. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
• Luthar, S. ve Zigler, E. (1991). Vulnerability and competence: A review of research on resilience in childhood. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61(1), 6-22.
• Mandleco, B. L. ve Peery, J. C. (2000). An organizational framework for conceptualizing resilience in children. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 13(3), 99-111.
• Martinek, T. J. ve Hellison, D. R. (1997). Fostering resiliency in underserved youth through physical activity. Quest, 49, 34-49.
• Masten, A. S. (1986). Humor and competence in school-aged children. Child Development, 57, 461- 473.
• Masten, A. S. (1994). Resilience in individual development: Successful adaptation despite risk and adversity. (Ed: M.C. Wang ve E.W. Gordon) Educational resilience in inner-city America: Challenges and prospects. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrance Erlbaum.
• Masten, A. S. ve Coastworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. American Psychologist, 53(2), 205- 220.
• Masten, A. S., Garmezy, N., Tellegen, A., Pellegrini, D. S., Larkin, K. ve Larsen, A. (1988). Competence and stress in school children: The moderating effects of individual and family qualities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 29, 745- 764.
• Masten, A. S., Hubbard, J. J., Gest, S. D., Tellegen, A., Garmezy, N. ve Ramirez, M. (1999). Competence in the context of adversity: Pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to late adolescence, Development and Psychopathology, 11, 143-169.
• Masten, A. S., Morison, P., Pellegrini, D. ve Tellegen, A. (1990). Competence under stress: risk and protective factors. (Ed: J. Rolf, A. S. Masten, D. Cicchetti, K. H. Nuechterlein ve S. Weintraub) Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Masten, A. S. ve Powell, J. L. (2003). A resilience framework for research, policiy, and practice. (Ed: S. Luthar) Resilience and vulnerabilities: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Masten, A. S. ve Reed, M. J. (2002). Resilience in development. (Ed: C. R. Snyder ve S. J. Lopez) The handbook of positive psychology. Oxford University Press.
• McCubbin, M., Balling, K., Possin, P., Frierdich, S. ve Bryne, B. (2002). Family resiliency in childhood cancer. Family Relations, 51, 103-111.
• McWhirter, J. J., McWhirter, B. T., McWhirter, A. M., ve McWhirter, E. H. (1998). At-risk youth: A comprehensive response for counselors, teachers,
• psychologists, and human service
• professionals. Pasific Groove, USA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
• Murphy, L. B. (1987). Further reflections on resilience. (Ed: E. J. Anthony ve B. J. Cohler) The Invulnerable Child. New York: The Guilford Press.
• Nakashima, M. ve Canda, E. R. (2005). Positive dying and resiliency in later life : A qualitative study. Journal of Aging Studies, 19(1), 109-125.
• Noam, G. G. ve Hermann, C. A. (2002). Where education and mental health meet: Developmental prevention and early intervention in schools. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 861- 875. Norman, E. (Ed.). (2000). Resiliency Enhancement: Putting the strengths perspective into social work practice. New York: Columbia University Press.
• O’Donnell, D. A., Schwab-Stone, M. E. ve Muyeed, A. Z. (2002). Multidimensional resilience in urban children exposed to community violence. Child Development, 73, 1265-1282.
• Olsson, C. A., Bond, L., Burns, J. M., Vella- Brodrick, D. A. ve Sawyer, S. M. (2003). Adelescent resilience: A concept analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 26, 1-11.
• Pilowsky, D. J., Zybert, P. A. ve Vlahov, D. (2004). Resilient children of injection drug users. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(11), 1372-1379.
• Pölkki, P., Ervast, S. ve Huuponen, M. (2004). Coping and resilience of a mentally ill parent. Social Work in Health Care, 39, 12, 151-163.
• Reed-Victor, E. (2000). Resilience and homeless students: Supportive adult roles. (Ed: J. H. Stronge ve E. Reed-Victor) Educating Homeless Students: Promising Practices. Larchomont, NY: Eye on Education.
• Reed-Victor, E. ve Stronge, J. H. (2002). Homeless students and resilience: Staff perspectives on individual and environmental factors. Journal of Children and Poverty, 8(2), 159-183.
• Richman, J. M. ve Fraser, M. W. (2001). The context of youth violence: Resilience, risk and protection. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.
• Ripple, C. H. ve Luthar, S. (2000). Academic risk among iner-city adolescents: The role of personal attributes. Journal of School Psychology, 38, 277-298.
• Royse, D. (1998). Mentoring high-risk minority youth: Evaluation of the Brothers project. Adolescence, 33, 145-158.
• Rutter, M. (1990). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. In J. E. Rolf, A.S. Masten, D. Cicchetti, K. Nuechterlein ve S. Weintraub) Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Rutter, M. (1999). Resilience concepts and findings: Implications for family therapy. Journal of Family Therapy, 21, 119-144).
• Rutter, M. ve Quinton, D. (1994). Long-term follow-up of women institutionalized in childhood: Factors promoting good functioning in adult life. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18, 225-234.
• Schoon, I., Parsons, S. ve Sacker, A. (2004). Socioeconomic adversity, educational resilience, and subsequent levels of adult adaptation. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19(4), 383-404.
• Smith, J. ve Prior, M. (1995). Temperament and stress resilience in school-age children: A within- families study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 168-179.
• Smokowski, P. R., Reynolds, A. J. ve Bezruczko, N. (2000). Resilience and protective factors in adolescence: An autobiographical perspective from disadvantaged youth. Journal of Social Psychology, 37,4, 425-448.
• Tebes, J. K., Irish, J. T., Vasquez, M. P. ve Perkins, D. V. (2004). Cognitive transformation as a marker of resilience. Substance Use and Misuse, 39,
• The Heritage Illustrated Dictionary of the English Language. (International ed.). (1973). New York: American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc.
• The Random House Dictionary of the English Language. (1967). New York: Random House.
• Thomsen, K. (2002). Building resilient students: Integrating resiliency into what you already know and do. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press, Inc.
• Tiet, Q. Q., Bird, H., Davies, M., Hoven, C., Cohen, P., Jensen, P. ve Goodman, S. (1998). Adverse life events and resilience. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 1191-1200.
• Ungar, M., Dumond, C. ve McDonald W. (2005). Risk, resilience and outdoor programmes for at- risk children. Journal of Social Work, 5(3), 319-338.
• Waaktar, T., Christie, H. J., Borge, A. I. H. ve Torgersen, S. (2004). How can young people’s resilience be enhanced? Experiences from a clinical intervention Project. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 9(2), 167-183.
• Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D. ve Walberg, H. J. (1994). Educational resilience in inner cities. (Ed: M.C. Wang ve E.W. Gordon) Educational resilience in inner- city America: Challenges and prospects. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrance Erlbaum.
• Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary of the English Language (2 ed.). (1958). USA: Simon
• nd ed.). (1958). USA: Simon & Schuster.
• Werner, E. E. ve Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A longitudinal study of resilient children and youth. New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Werner, E. E. ve Smith, R. S. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
• Werner, E. E. ve Smith, R. S. (2001). Journeys from childhood to midlife: risk, resilience, and recovery. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
• Wilcox, D. T., Richards, F. ve O’Keeffe, Z. (2004). Resilience and risk factors associated with experiencing childhood sexual abuse, Child Abuse Review, 13, 338-352.
• Windle, M. (1999). Critical conceptual and measurement issues in the study of resilience. (Ed: Glantz, M. D. ve Johnson, J. L.) Resilience and development: Positive life adaptations. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
• Wyman, P. A., Cowen, E. L., Work, W. C. ve Parker, G. R. (1991). Developmental and family milieu interview correlates of resilience in urban children who have experienced major life-stress. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 405-426.
• Resilience, Risk and Protective Factors 127