Renewable Energy Use in Small Rural Towns: A Case Study of Thulamela Local Municipality, South Africa

Phathutshedzo Netshilema; James Chakwizira; Emaculate Ingwani

doi:10.31127/tuje.1967997

Renewable Energy Use in Small Rural Towns: A Case Study of Thulamela Local Municipality, South Africa

Abstract

This manuscript explores the use of renewable energy (RE) in small towns to promote sustainable human settlements, using Thohoyandou as a case study. An exploratory research design underpinned the study. Using a combination of primary and secondary data collection methods, a randomised sample of 125 households in Thohoyandou town was selected, along with 15 purposively selected key informant interviewees. The gathered data were analysed using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis. The findings showed that small rural towns, such as those typified by the study area, Thohoyandou, are facing energy access challenges. These range from frequent power outages (mean score 3.90) to frequent use of firewood (mean score 3.46) to low use of solar systems (mean score 2.46). The study recommended developing policies that prioritise the use of RE in small rural towns. Additionally, the strategic introduction of affordable, clean, and easily available alternative RE power to provide sustainable human settlements is recommended

Keywords

Supporting Institution

University of Venda

Project Number

FSEA/24/URP/44

Ethical Statement

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Venda (Ethical Clearance Approval No FSEA/24/URP/44, March 2025).

References

Rabbi, M. F., Popp, J., Máté, D., & Kovács, S. (2022). Energy security and energy transition to achieve carbon neutrality. Energies, 15(21), 8126. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15218126
World Energy Outlook 2023 (2023) The International Energy Agency report World Energy Outlook 2023. IEA, Paris, France.
Kantoğlu, B., & Argun, İ. D. (2023). Evaluation of renewable energy source alternatives prioritisation. Turkish Journal of Engineering (TUJE), 7 (1), 01-08. https://doi.org/10.31127/tuje.1001488
Khail, A. A., & Polattaş, Z. (2024). Building integration of solar energy systems in Türkiye and world. Turkish Journal of Engineering (TUJE), 8 (2), 341-352. https://doi.org/10.31127/tuje.1394547
Khan, A., & Santamouris, M. (2023). On the local warming potential of urban rooftop photovoltaic solar panels in cities. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 15623. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-40280-9
Gajanayake, R., Johnson, L., Daronkola, H. K., & Perera, C. (2024). Impact of house holds’ future orientation and values on their willingness to install solar photovoltaic systems. Sustainability, 16 (18). https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188143
Alhaj Omar, F., Pamuk, N., & Kulaksız, A. A. (2023). A critical evaluation of maximum power point tracking techniques for PV systems working under partial shading conditions. Turkish Journal of Engineering (TUJE), 7 (1), 73-81. https://doi.org/10.31127/tuje.1032674
IRENA & CPI (2023). Global landscape of renewable energy finance 2023, International Renewable Energy Agency and Climate Policy Initiative, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. ISBN: 978-92-9260-523-0

Eckhouse, G. (2025). Performing energy: the International Energy Agency and the conflicting imaginaries of capitalist energy transition. New Political Economy, 30 (5), 741-754. https://doi.org/10.1080/13563467.2025.2497763
Inglesi-Lotz, R. (2023). Load shedding in South Africa: Another nail in income inequality?. South African Journal of Science, 119(9-10), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2023/16597
Renné, D. S. (2022). The opportunities and challenges for 100% renewable energy. In Sustainable Energy Development and Innovation: Selected Papers from the World Renewable Energy Congress (WREC) 2020 (pp. 495-503). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76221-6_58
Lenferna, A. (2023). South Africa’s unjust climate reparations: a critique of the Just Energy Transition Partnership. Review of African Political Economy, 50 (177-178), 491-501. https://doi.org/10.1080/03056244.2023.2278953
Wiese, M., & van der Westhuizen, L. M. (2024). Impact of planned power outages (load shedding) on consumers in developing countries: Evidence from South Africa. Energy Policy, 187, 114033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2024.114033
Ratshitanga, M., Mataifa, H., Krishnamurthy, S., & Tshinavhe, N. (2023). Demand-Side Management as a Network Planning Tool: Review of Drivers, Benefits and Opportunities for South Africa. Energies, 17(1), 116. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010116
Ayamolowo, O. J., Manditereza, P. T., & Kusakana, K. (2022). South Africa power reforms: The Path to a dominant renewable energy-sourced grid. Energy Reports, 8, 1208-1215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.11.100
Zhang, J., (2024). Energy access challenge and the role of fossil fuels in meeting electricity demand: Promoting renewable energy capacity for sustainable development. Geoscience Frontiers, 15(2), 101567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2024.101873
Nsafon, B. E. K., Same, N. N., Yakub, A. O., Chaulagain, D., Kumar, N. M., & Huh, J. S. (2023). The justice and policy implications of clean energy transition in Africa. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 11, 1089391. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1089391
Riffat, S., Ahmad, M. I., & Shakir, A. (2024). Sustainable Energy Technologies and Low Carbon Buildings. Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-78853-6
Whba, R. (2025). Renewable energy in developing countries: Insight into challenges, policy, and financing. In Renewable energy technologies and strategies in the global energy transition (pp. 15-38). American Chemical Society. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2025-1499.ch002
International Energy Agency (IEA), (2021). Net zero by 2050: A roadmap for the global energy sector. International Energy Agency (IEA), Paris: France.
Shyu, C. W. (2024). A framework of basic human energy needs for decent quality of life at household level: policy implications for enhancing energy justice and meeting SDG7. Journal of Asian Public Policy, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/17516234.2024.2446020
Radulescu, M., Simionescu, M., Kartal, M. T., Mohammed, K. S., & Balsalobre-Lorente, D. (2025). The impact of human capital, natural resources, and renewable energy on achieving sustainable cities and communities in European Union countries. Sustainability, 17(5), 2237. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17052237
Mensah, J. K. (2022). Electricity and informal settlements: Towards achieving SDG 7 in developing countries. Energy Research & Social Science, 93, 102844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2022.102844
Aburmalah, A. E. A., & Üzümcüoğlu, D. (2025). Urban morphology and energy performance: Spatial-simulation assessment from Hebron, Palestine. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 9(1), 143 –163. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2025.v9n1-8
Mayer, H., & Lazzeroni, M. (2022). Introduction to a research agenda for small and medium-sized towns. A Research Agenda for Small and Medium-Sized Towns, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800887121.00005
Tjarks, D. (2024). Seeing beyond the metropolis: metropolitan bias and the Angolan system of cities. Space and Polity, 28(1), 60-80. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562576.2024.2304828
Sohaimi, N. S., Abd Razak, M. H., Said, M. S., Ibrahim, F. I., & Zıvalı, T. (2025). Smart technologies for socioeconomic sustainability in urban housing: A Southeast Asian perspective. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 9(1), 270–288. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2025.v9n1-14
Alhowaily, A. (2023). Revitalizing Urban Governance: Integrating Smart Growth and Decolonial Perspectives for Municipal Empowerment in Shaping Growth across Egyptian Desert Landscapes. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 7(2), 244–261. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2023.v7n2-15
Koko, A. F., & Bello, M. (2023). Exploring the Contemporary Challenges of Urbanization and the Role of Sustainable Urban Development: A Study of Lagos City, Nigeria. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 7(1), 175-188. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2023.v7n1-12
Rumbayan, M., Kindangen, J., Sambul, A., Sompie, S., & Cross, J. (2025). Solar energy implementation in rural communities and its contributions to SDGs: A systematic literature review. Unconventional Resources, 6, 100180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uncres.2025.100180
Pillan, M., Costa, F., & Caiola, V. (2023). How could people and communities contribute to the energy transition? conceptual maps to inform, orient, and inspire design actions and education. Sustainability, 15(19), 14600. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914600
Geels, F. W. (2004). From sectoral systems of innovation to socio-technical systems: Insights about dynamics and change from sociology and institutional theory. Research policy, 33(6-7), 897-920. https://doi:10.1016/j.respol.2004.01.015
Uzun Altuntaş, S., Atalay, H., & Dervişoğlu, A. (2026). Urban Silhouette Analysis in Historical Peninsula Süleymaniye District Using Digital Twin Technology. Turkish Journal of Engineering (TUJE), 10 (2), 640-648. https://doi.org/10.31127/tuje.1811939
Ercan, O. (2020). Essentials of a Sustainable Land Use Planning Approach for Rural Areas and a Model Proposal to be Applied Under Turkish Conditions. Turkish Journal of Engineering (TUJE), 4 (3), 154-163. https://doi.org/10.31127/tuje.650238
Kabeyi, M.J.B., & Olanrewaju, O.A., (2022). Sustainable energy transition for renewable and low carbon grid electricity generation and supply. Frontiers in Energy Research, 9, 743114. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2021.743114
Zhang, S., Sang, X., Yang, W., & Luo, X. (2025). Empowering household energy transition: The impact of digital economy on clean energy use in rural China. Energy, 324, 136016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2025.136016
Du, H., Han, Q., de Vries, B., & Sun, J. (2025). Renewable energy adoption in urban residential communities in China: An agent-based model for assessing intervention impact. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 121, 102323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2025.102323
Estakhri, R. K., Ezbarami, Z. T., Peyrovi, H., Leyli, E. K., Isanazar, A., Fakhrmousavi, S. A., & Jafaraghaee, F. (2025). Effectiveness of transition theory-based interventions on outcomes of nursing care: A scoping review. Iranian Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Research, 30 (4), 461-467. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijnmr.ijnmr_233_24
Liu, Y. (2022). Paradigmatic compatibility matters: A critical review of qualitative-quantitative debate in mixed methods research. Sage Open, 12(1), 21582440221079922. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221079922
Al-Emran, M. (2023). Beyond technology acceptance: Development and evaluation of technology-environmental, economic, and social sustainability theory. Technology in Society, 75, 102383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2023.102383
Babayomi, O. O., Dahoro, D. A., & Zhang, Z. (2022). Affordable clean energy transition in developing countries: Pathways and technologies. Iscience, 25(5). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.104178
Sodoke, S., Ermolin, I., Boateng, D., & Amoah, E. G. (2026). Beyond grid connection: A Q-methodology study of stakeholder perspectives on energy poverty in urban Ghana. Energy Research & Social Science, 131, 104471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2025.104471
Eisele, L., & Schubatzky, T. (2025). What people know about household energy use: assessing public understanding of energy consumption. Energy Policy, 206, 114765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2025.114765
Huntington-Klein, N., (2021). The effect: An introduction to research design and casualty. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Stebbins, R.A., (2011). Exploratory research in the social sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Thulamela Local Municipality (TLM), (2023a). Final annual report 2022/2023. Thohoyandou: Thulamela Local Municipality. Thohoyandou, South Africa.
Thulamela Local Municipality (TLM), (2023b). Integrated development plan 2023/2024. Thohoyandou: Thulamela Local Municipality. Thohoyandou, South Africa.
Anyumba, G., (2019). Thohoyandou’s central business district and the hypothetical accessibility challenges for emergency services. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 11(2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v11i2.681
Statistics South Africa (StatsSA), (2022). Province at a glance: Limpopo. StatsSA, Government Printers, Pretoria, South Africa.
Sinthumule, N. I., & Netshisaulu, K. H. (2022). Wetland resource use and conservation attitudes of rural vs. urban dwellers: A comparative analysis in Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Water, 14(8), 1290. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14081290
Statistics South Africa (StatsSA), (2016). General Household Survey 2016. StatsSA: Pretoria, Government Pretoria, South Africa, P0318.
Ting, H., Memon, M.A., Thurasamy, R., and Cheah, J., (2025). Snowball sampling: A review and guidelines for survey research. Asian Journal of Business Research, 15(1), 22-41. https://10.14707/ajbr.250186
Štreimikienė, D., Lekavičius, V., Stankūnienė, G., & Pažėraitė, A. (2022). Renewable energy acceptance by households: evidence from Lithuania. Sustainability, 14(14), 8370. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148370
Walker, D. M., Tarver, W. L., Jonnalagadda, P., Ranbom, L., Ford, E. W., & Rahurkar, S. (2023). Perspectives on challenges and opportunities for interoperability: findings from key informant interviews with stakeholders in Ohio. JMIR medical informatics, 11 (1), e43848. https://doi.org/10.2196/43848
Scholtz, S. E., de Klerk, W., & de Beer, L. T. (2020). The use of research methods in psychological research: A systematised review. Frontiers in research metrics and analytics, 5, (1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.3389/frma.2020.00001
Mikolajewicz, N., & Komarova, S. V. (2019). Meta-analytic methodology for basic research: a practical guide. Frontiers in physiology, 10, (203), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.00203
Eskom (2022), Annual Financial Statements, Johannesburg, South Africa.
Bhattacharya, M., Paramati, S. R., Ozturk, I., & Bhattacharya, S. (2016). The effect of renewable energy consumption on economic growth: Evidence from top 38 countries. Applied energy, 162, 733-741. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.10.104
Ahmed, S. K., Mohammed, R. A., Nashwan, A. J., Ibrahim, R. H., Abdalla, A. Q., Ameen, B. M. M., & Khdhir, R. M. (2025). Using thematic analysis in qualitative research. Journal of Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health, 6, 100198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.glmedi.2025.100198
Kroon, BVD., Brouwer, R., & Van Beukering, P.J.H., (2013). The energy ladder: theoretical myth or empirical truth? Results from a meta-analysis, renew. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 20, 504-513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.045
Naeem, M., Ozuem, W., Howell, K., & Ranfagni, S. (2023). A step-by-step process of thematic analysis to develop a conceptual model in qualitative research. International journal of qualitative methods, 22, 16094069231205789. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069231205789
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Geels, F. W., & Locatelli, G. (2024). Broadening project studies to address sustainability transitions: Conceptual suggestions and crossovers with socio-technical transitions research. International journal of project management, 42(7), 102646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2024.102646
Anditi, C., Musango, J. K., Smit, S., & Ceschin, F. (2022). Addressing gender dimensions in energy innovations: A gender analysis framework for informal urban settlements in Africa. Energy Research & Social Science, 88, 102476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2021.102476
Thulamela Local Municipality (2016). Thulamela Spatial Planning and Land Use Management By-laws (2016), Thohoyandou, South Africa
Ahmed, I. A., Effiong, E., Shanmugasundaram, L., Hummer, L., Orttung, R. W., & Shittu, E. (2025). Measuring the invisible: A framework for quantifying energy justice in urban communities in the United States. Energy Research & Social Science, 122, 103986. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2025.103986
Mohammedfatih, G. H., Valizadeh Kamran, K., Ghanbari, A., & Ajaj, Q. M. (2025). GIS-based multi-criteria analysis for solar energy cells site selection over Kirkuk City. Turkish Journal of Engineering (TUJE),10(1), 266-282. https://doi.org/10.31127/10.31127/tuje.1800036
Cagan, M., & Unel, F. B. (2024). SWOT analysis of green building systems in real estate development. Turkish Journal of Engineering (TUJE), 8 (2), 330-340. https://doi.org/10.31127/tuje.1401233
Eminoğlu, Y., Seyhan, Ç., Erdin, H.E. & Şırkı, E. (2026). Mapping the Intellectual Landscape of Urban Earthquake Resilience: A Scientometric and Qualitative Synthesis toward Sustainable Cities. Turkish Journal of Engineering (TUJE), 10 (2), 723-747. https://doi.org/10.31127/tuje.1758583
SEA [Sustainable Energy Africa], (2017). Energy poverty and gender in Urban South Africa. Cape Town, South Africa.
Haldar, A., Sethi, N., Jena, P. K., & Padhan, P. C. (2023). Towards achieving Sustainable Development Goal 7 in sub‐Saharan Africa: Role of governance and renewable energy. Sustainable Development, 31(4), 2446-2463. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2521
Cong, S., Nock, D., Qiu, Y. L., & Xing, B. (2022). Unveiling hidden energy poverty using the energy equity gap. Nature communications, 13(1), 2456. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-30146-5
Umair, M., Aizhan, A., Teymurova, V., & Chang, L. (2024). Does the disparity between rural and urban incomes affect rural energy poverty?. Energy Strategy Reviews, 56, 101584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2024.101584
Odiyo, J. O., Bikam, P. B., & Chakwizira, J. (2022). Green economy in the transport sector: A case study of Limpopo Province, South Africa (p. 123). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86178-0
Olsson, J. M., & Gardumi, F. (2021). Modelling least cost electricity system scenarios for Bangladesh using OSeMOSYS. Energy Strategy Reviews, 38, 100705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2021.100705
Adedeji P. A., Akinlabi, S. A., Madushele, N., & Olatunji, O. O. (2020), Neuro-fuzzy resource forecast in site suitability assessment for wind and solar energy: A mini review, Journal of Cleaner Production, 269, 122104, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122104
Caggiano, H., Kocakuşak, D., Kumar, P., & Tier, M. O. (2023). U.S. cities’ integration and evaluation of equity considerations into climate action plans. npj Urban Sustainability, 3(1), 50. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42949-023-00129-6
Wen, Y., Zheng, L., Gu, Y., & Yang, X. (2025). Impacts of green technology innovation on carbon emissions: A spatial-based perspective. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 37(13), 4127-4139. https://doi.org/10.1080/09537325.2024.2438110
Elomina, J., & Živojinović, I. (2024). Systematic literature review of land use conflicts in Northern Sweden—lessons learned and ways forward. Resources, 13(6), 77. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources13060077
Ehimen, E. A., Sandula, P. Y., Robin, T., & Gamula, G. T. (2023). Improving energy access in low-income sub-saharan african countries: A case study of Malawi. Energies, 16(7), 3106. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073106
Wong, R., & Dewayanti, A. (2024). Indonesiaʼs energy transition: Dependency, subsidies and renewables. Asia & the Pacific Policy Studies, 11(2), e391. https://doi.org/10.1002/app5.391
Falcone, P. M. (2023). Sustainable energy policies in developing countries: a review of challenges and opportunities. Energies, 16(18), 6682. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16186682
Kar, S. K., Harichandan, S., & Prakash, O. (2024). Factors influencing the adoption of renewable energy in India: supplementing technology-driven drivers and barriers with sustainable development goals. Journal of Advances in Management Research, 21(2), 245-266. https://doi.org/10.1108/JAMR-08-2023-0242

Details

Primary Language

English

Subjects

Civil Construction Engineering

Journal Section

Research Article

Authors

Phathutshedzo Netshilema This is me
0009-0007-4221-3812
South Africa

James Chakwizira ^*
0000-0002-4319-1834
South Africa

Emaculate Ingwani
0000-0001-6977-6681
South Africa

Publication Date

October 16, 2026

Submission Date

June 15, 2026

Acceptance Date

July 23, 2026

Published in Issue

Year 2026 Volume: 10 Number: 4

DOI

https://doi.org/10.31127/tuje.1967997

IZ

https://izlik.org/JA69MH39XJ

Cite

RIS / Bibtex

APA

Netshilema, P., Chakwizira, J., & Ingwani, E. (2026). Renewable Energy Use in Small Rural Towns: A Case Study of Thulamela Local Municipality, South Africa. Turkish Journal of Engineering, 10(4), 1403-1418. https://doi.org/10.31127/tuje.1967997

AMA

1.Netshilema P, Chakwizira J, Ingwani E. Renewable Energy Use in Small Rural Towns: A Case Study of Thulamela Local Municipality, South Africa. TUJE. 2026;10(4):1403-1418. doi:10.31127/tuje.1967997

Chicago

Netshilema, Phathutshedzo, James Chakwizira, and Emaculate Ingwani. 2026. “Renewable Energy Use in Small Rural Towns: A Case Study of Thulamela Local Municipality, South Africa”. Turkish Journal of Engineering 10 (4): 1403-18. https://doi.org/10.31127/tuje.1967997.

EndNote

Netshilema P, Chakwizira J, Ingwani E (October 1, 2026) Renewable Energy Use in Small Rural Towns: A Case Study of Thulamela Local Municipality, South Africa. Turkish Journal of Engineering 10 4 1403–1418.

IEEE

[1]P. Netshilema, J. Chakwizira, and E. Ingwani, “Renewable Energy Use in Small Rural Towns: A Case Study of Thulamela Local Municipality, South Africa”, TUJE, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 1403–1418, Oct. 2026, doi: 10.31127/tuje.1967997.

ISNAD

Netshilema, Phathutshedzo - Chakwizira, James - Ingwani, Emaculate. “Renewable Energy Use in Small Rural Towns: A Case Study of Thulamela Local Municipality, South Africa”. Turkish Journal of Engineering 10/4 (October 1, 2026): 1403-1418. https://doi.org/10.31127/tuje.1967997.

JAMA

1.Netshilema P, Chakwizira J, Ingwani E. Renewable Energy Use in Small Rural Towns: A Case Study of Thulamela Local Municipality, South Africa. TUJE. 2026;10:1403–1418.

MLA

Netshilema, Phathutshedzo, et al. “Renewable Energy Use in Small Rural Towns: A Case Study of Thulamela Local Municipality, South Africa”. Turkish Journal of Engineering, vol. 10, no. 4, Oct. 2026, pp. 1403-18, doi:10.31127/tuje.1967997.

Vancouver

1.Phathutshedzo Netshilema, James Chakwizira, Emaculate Ingwani. Renewable Energy Use in Small Rural Towns: A Case Study of Thulamela Local Municipality, South Africa. TUJE. 2026 Oct. 1;10(4):1403-18. doi:10.31127/tuje.1967997