Characterization of Water Pollution in Tropical Epikarst Spring in Gunungsewu Karst Area, Java Island, Indonesia

Year 2025, Volume: 9 Issue: 3, 433 - 446

Ahmad Cahyadi , Indra Agus Riyanto , Rasyiida Acintya , Akhmad Singgih , Rakhmat Dwi Putra

https://doi.org/10.31127/tuje.1524600

Abstract

Groundwater vulnerability in karst areas is generally considered high due to the development of secondary porosity caused by the dissolution processes. However, several epikarst springs still exhibit a large influence of diffuse flow with underdeveloped conduit flow. This signifies that epikarst springs have different characteristics from karst springs or underground rivers which have experienced further development of dissolution passages. This study aims to characterize pollution in epikarst springs located in the tropical region, with a case study in the East Gunungsewu Karst Area. Water quality standard is used in this study to assess the water pollution in the epikarst spring in the East Gunungsewu Karst Area, Indonesia. The method in this research was carried out by plotting the water quality standards in Schoeller diagrams, Piper diagrams, triangular Piper diagrams, and scatter plots to determine the chemical characteristics of the epikarst water. The characterization results displays that the water quality of Gedong Springs has HCO3- and Ca2+ values that exceed WHO standards. Analysis of Schoeller diagrams and Piper diagrams on these springs shows that these two dominant major elements are produced from the enrichment process due to groundwater processes in the limestone aquifers of the Wonosari Formation. This is also supported by the results of Scatter plot which shows that the dominant ionic Gedong Spring comes from limestone dissolution. Further analysis showed an influence of agricultural activity is present in 1 of the sample taken from the epikarst. The analysis outcomes exhibit a unique characteristic of epikarst springs, namely the dominance of diffuse flow moving through the rock matrix which causes high HCO3- and Ca2+ content throughout most of the season. On the other hand, this type of flow makes it difficult for pollutants caused by anthropogenic activities in the form of agriculture and domestic use to pollute the water inside.

Keywords

Agriculture Pollution, Anthropogenic Pollution, Epikarst Spring, Tropical Karst, Water Quality

Supporting Institution

Faculty of Geography, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia

Project Number

Independent research grant for lecturers at the Faculty of Geography, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia in 2023 with contract number 80/UN1/FGE/KPT/SETD/2023

Thanks

We would like to give our thanks to the Faculty of Geography Universitas Gadjah Mada

References

• Pellicani, R., Spilotro, G., & van Westen, C. J. (2016). Rockfall trajectory modeling combined with heuristic analysis for assessing the rockfall hazard along the Maratea SS18 coastal road (Basilicata, Southern Italy). Landslides, 13(5), 985–1003.
• Stevanović, Z. (2018). Global distribution and use of water from karst aquifers. Geological Society, 466(1), 217–236.
• Stevanović, Z. (2019). Karst waters in potable water supply: a global scale overview. Environmental Earth Sciences, 78(23), 1–12
• Wu, X., Gao, X., Tan, T., Li, C., Yan, R., Chi, Z., Feng, Y., Gong, P., Fang, J., Zhang, X., Aihemaiti, K., & Xu, D. (2021). Sources and pollution path identification of PAHs in karst aquifers: an example from Liulin karst water system, northern China. Journal of Pollutant Hydrology, 241(388), 103810.
• Malá, J., Hübelová, D., Schrimpelová, K., Kozumplíková, A., Lejska, S. (2022). Surface watercourses as sources of karst water pollution. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 19(5), 3503–3512.
• Reberski, J. L., Terzić, J., Maurice, L. D., & Lapworth, D. J. (2022). Emerging organic pollutants in karst groundwater: A global level assessment. Journal of Hydrology, 604, 1-15.
• Richter, D., Goeppert, N., Zindler, B., & Goldscheider, N. (2021). Spatial and temporal dynamics of suspended particles and E. coli in a complex surface-water and karst groundwater system as a basis for an adapted water protection scheme, northern Vietnam Hydrogeology Journal, 29(5), 1965–1978.
• Brad, T., Bizic, M., Ionescu, D., Chiriac, C. M., Kenesz, M., Roba, C., Ionescu, A., Fekete, A., Mirea, I. C., & Moldovan O. T. (2022). Potential for natural attenuation of domestic and agricultural pollution in karst groundwater wnvironments. Water, 14(10), 1597.
• Huebsch, M., Fenton, O., Horan, B., Hennessy, D., Richards, K. G., Jordan, P., Goldscheider, N., Butscher, C., & Blum, P. (2014). Mobilisation or dilution? Nitrate response of karst springs to high rainfall events. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 18(11), 4423–4435.
• Jiang, Y., Cao, M., Yuan, D., Zhang, Y., & He, Q. (2018). Hydrogeological characterization and environmental effects of the deteriorating urban karst groundwater in a karst trough valley: Nanshan, SW China. Hydrogeology Journal, 26(5), 1487–1497.
• Ravbar, N., Mulec, J., Mayaud, C., Blatnik, M., & Kogovšek, B. M. P. (2023). A comprehensive early warning system for karst water sources pollution risk , case study of the Unica springs, SW Slovenia. Science of the Total Environment, 885(163958), 1-13.
• Agniy, R. F., Adji, T. N., Cahyadi, A., Nurkholis, A., & Haryono, E. (2021). Artificial tracer test for characterisation and conservation of karst water in Jonggrangan Karst, Java Island, Indonesia. International Journal of Conservation Science, 12(4), 1483-1502.
• Eftimi, R., & Malík, P. (2019). Assessment of regional flow type and groundwater sensitivity to pollution using hydrograph analyses and hydrochemical data of the Selita and Blue Eye karst springs, Albania. Hydrogeology Journal, 27(6), 2045–2059.
• Langston, A. L., Screaton, E. J., Martin, J. B., & Bailly-Comte, V. (2012). Interactions of diffuse and focused allogenic recharge in an eogenetic karst aquifer (Florida, USA). Hydrogeology Journal, 20(4), 767–781.
• Bakalowicz, M. (2019). Epikarst In Encyclopedia of Caves, third edition, Elsevier Inc, 1193-1225. ISBN 9780128141243.
• Hartmann, A., Goldscheider, N., Wagener, T., Lange, J., & Weller, M. (2014). Karst water resources in a changing world: review of hydrological modelling approaches. AGU Publications, Reviews of Geophysics, 523, 1 – 25.
• Husic, A., Fox, J., Adams, E., Ford, W., Agouridis, C., Currens, J., & Backus, J. (2019). Nitrate pathways, processes, and timing in an agricultural karst system: development and application of a numerical model. Water Resources Research, 55(3), 2079–2103.
• El Harim, A., Cherkaoui, E., Khamar, M., & Nounah, A. (2021). Assessment of the water quality of the Bouregreg Estuary after the depollution project. International Journal of Conservation Science, 12(1), 267-280.
• Grimmeisen, F., Lehmann, M. F., Liesch, T., Goeppert, N., Klinger, J., Zopfi, J., & Goldscheider, N. (2017). Isotopic constraints on water source mixing, network leakage and pollution in an urban groundwater system. Science of the Total Environment, 1(583), 202–213.
• Sinha, P., & Kumar, R. (2019). A review on management water resources in South Africa. International Journal of Conservation Science, 10(4), 821-840.
• He, Q., Yang, P., Yuan, W., Jiang, Y., Pu, J., Yuan, D., & Kuang, Y. (2010). The use of nitrate, bacteria and fluorescent tracers to characterize groundwater recharge and pollution in a karst catchment, Chongqing, China. Hydrogeology Journal, 18(5), 1281–1289.
• Schilling, K. E., Jones, C. S., Clark, R. J., Libra, R. D., Liang, X., & Zhang, Y. K. (2019). Contrasting NO3-N concentration patterns at two karst springs in Iowa (USA): insights on aquifer nitrogen storage and delivery. Hydrogeology Journal, 27(4), 1389–1400.
• Indonesian Government Regulation. (2021). Number 22, Implementatıon of protectıon and envıronmental management. Deputy Secretary of the Cabinet for Legal Affairs and Legislation, Jakarta.
• World Health Organization. (WHO). 2012. Guideline fordrinking water quality: training pack. WHO, Genewa.
• Ghouili, N., Jarraya-Horriche, F., Hamzaoui-Azaza, F., Zaghrarni, M. F., Ribeiro, L., & Zammouri, M. (2021). Groundwater vulnerability mapping using the susceptibility index (SI) method: case study of Takelsa aquifer, Northeastern Tunisia. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 173(104035), 1-31.
• Gartsiyanova, K., Kitev, A., Varbanov, M., Georgieva, S., & Genchev, S. (2022). Water quality assessment and conservation of the river water in the regions with various antrhopogenic activities in Bulgaria: a case study of the catchment of Topolnitsa and Luda Yana Rivers. International Journal of Conservation Science, 13(2), 733-742.
• Bonacci, O., Jukić, D., & Ljubenkov, I. (2006). Definition of catchment area in karst: case of the Rivers Krčić and Krka, Croatia. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 51(4), 682-699.
• Bhat, N. A., & Jeelani, G. H. (2015). Delineation of the recharge areas and distinguishing teh sources of Karst Springs in Bringi Watershed, Kashmir, Himalayas using hydrogeochemistry and environmental isotopes. Journal of Earth System Science, 124(8), 1667-1676.
• Widyastuti, M., Riyanto, I. A., Naufal, M., Ramadhan, F., & Rahmawati, N. (2019). Catchment area analysis of Guntur Karst Spring Gunung Kidul Regency, Java, Indonesia. IOP Conrence Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 256, 1-11.
• Goldscheider, N., Chen, Z. Auler, A. S., Bakalowicz, M., Broda, S., Drew, D., Hartmann, J., Jiang, G., Moosdorf, N., Stevanovic, Z., & Veni, G. (2020). Global distribution of carbonate rocks and karst water resources. Hydrogeology Journal, 28(5), 1661–1677.
• Jiang, G., Chen, Z., Siripornpibul, C., Haryono, E., Nguyen, N. X., Oo, T., Manzano, L. S. J., Vongphachanh, S., Kong, S., & Guo, F. (2021). The karst water environment in Southeast Asia: characteristics, challenges, and approaches. Hydrogeology Journal, 29(1), 123–135.
• Adji, T. N., Haryono, E., Fatchurohman, H., & Oktama, R. (2017). Spatial and temporal hydrochemistry variations of karst water in Gunung Sewu, Java, Indonesia. Environmental Earth Sciences, 76(20), 1–16.
• Cahyadi, A., Riyanto, I. A., Adji, T. N., Haryono, E., Widyastuti, M., & Aji, A. P. K. (2021). Temporal variations in the water quality of beton spring, Gunungsewu karst area, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 896(1), 1-7.
• Tastian, N. F., Adji, T. N., & Cahyadi, A. (2022). The effect of allogenic recharge on multi-temporal water quality variations in the Pindul Cave underground river, Gunungkidul. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1098(1), 1-7.
• Cahyadi, A., Riyanto, I. A., Ramadhan, F., Widyastuti, M., Fatchurohman, H., & Adji, T. N. (2023). Multitemporal water quality analysis of an epikarst spring for agricultural irrigation in the Gunungsewu Karst Area, Indonesia. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2683, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0145414
• Cahyadi, A., Haryono, E., Adji, T. N., Widyastuti, M., Riyanto, I. A., Muhammad, D. T. N., & Adji, A. P. K. (2023). Multitemporal water quality analysis of a karst spring affected by allogenic recharge. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2683:03002, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0145408
• Adji, T. N., & Bahtiar, I. Y. (2016). Rainfall–discharge relationship and karst flow components analysis for karst aquifer characterization in Petoyan Spring, Java, Indonesia. Environmental Earth Sciences, 75(9), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-5553-1
• Riyanto, I. A., Widyastuti, M., Cahyadi, A., Agniy, R. F., & Adji, T. N. (2022). Groundwater management based on vulnerability to pollution in the tropical karst region of Guntur Spring, Gunungsewu Karst, Java Island, Indonesia. Environmental Processes, 7(4), 1277–1302.
• Cahyadi, A., Haryono, E., Adji, T. N., Widyastuti, M., Riyanto, I. A., Acintya, A., & Qushoyyi, N. F. (2022). Hydrogeochemical and water quality characteristics of Selonjono Karst Spring of Gunungsewu Karst Special Region of Yogyakarta (Karakteristik Hidrogeokimia dan Kualitas Air pada Mata Air Karst Selonjono Karst Gunungsewu Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta). Geodika: Jurnal Kajian Ilmu Dan Pendidikan Geografi, 6(2), 175–185. (in Indonesian)
• Cahyadi, A., Haryono, E., Adji, T. N., Widyastuti, M., Riyanto, I. A., Muhammad, D. T. N., & Tastian, N. F. (2021). Rainfall variability in Gunungsewu Karst Area, Java Island, Indonesia. Indonesian Journal of Forestry Research, 8(1), 23-35.
• Barianto, D. H., Margono, U., Husein, S., Novian, M. I., & Permana, A. K. (2017). Geological Map of the Wonosari Java. Geological Agency, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Republic of Indonesia, 1408-31, Bandung,. https://geologi.esdm.go.id/geomap/pages/preview/peta-geologi-lembar-wonosari-jawa
• Demirgül, T., Yilmaz, C. B., Zipir, B. N., Kart, F. S., Pehriz, M. F., Demir, V., & Sevimli, M. F. (2022). Investigation of Turkey’s Climate Periods in Terms of Precipitation and Temperature Changes. Engineering Applications, 1(1), 80-90.
• Ghayoomi, H., & Partohaghighi, M. (2023). Investigating lake drought prevention using a drl-based method. Engineering Applicatios, 2(1), 49-59.
• BSN. (2015). Water and waste – part 11: Ca and Mg test. SNI 06-6989.11. Badan Standardisasi Nasional, Jakarta.
• BSN. (2019). Water and waste – part 20: Cl and SO4 test. SNI 6728.1:2015. Badan Standardisasi Nasional, Jakarta.
• APHA. 2017. Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 23th edition. American Public Health Association, Washington DC.
• Husein, S., Srijono, & Suratman. (2007). Tinjauan geomorfologi pegunungan selatan dıy/jawa tengah: telaah peran faktor endogenik dan eksogenik dalam proses pembentukan pegunungan. Proceedings of the Seminar on the Geological Potential of the Southern Mountains in Regional Development, Geological Agency, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Republic of Indonesia, 1-10, Yogyakarta. http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2784.0727
• Putra, D. P. E. (2010). Estimation, reality and trend of groundwater nitrate concentration under unsewered area of Yogyakarta City–Indonesia. Journal of South East Asian Applied Geology, 2(1), 20–27.
• Fathmawati, F., Fachiroh, J., Sutomo, A. H., & Putra, D. P. E. (2018). Origin and distribution of nitrate in water well of settlement areas in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 190, 628, 1-11.
• Hoaghia, M. A., Moldovan, A., Kovacs, E., Mirea, I. C., Kenesz, M., Brad, T., Cadar, O., Micle, V., Levei, E. A., & Moldovan, O. T. (2021). Water quality and hydrogeochemical characteristics of some karst water sources in Apuseni Mountains, Romania. Water, 13, 857, 1-19.
• Adji, T. N., Cahyadi, A., Ramadhan, G. S., Haryono, E., Purnama, S., Tastian, N. F., Acitya, R., & Putra, R. D. (2023). Impact analysis of anthropogenic activities on water quality in Seropan Underground River, Gunungsewu Karst Area, Gunungkidul Regency (Analisis dampak aktivitas antropogenik pada kualitas air di Sungai Bawah Tanah Seropan, Kawasan Karst Gunungsewu, Kabupaten Gunungkidul). Jurnal Geografi, Edukasi dan Lingkungan, 7(1), 1-17. (In Indonesian)
• Pratama, A. D., Dwiputra, D. S., Nurkholis, A., Haryono, E., Cahyadi, A., Agniy, R. F., & Adji, T. N. (2021). Factors affecting hydrochemistry of karst springs and their relationship to aquifer development. Environmental Processes, 8(4), 1379-1413.
• Mahrizkhal, D. S., Priambada, A. P., Al-Ghozali, M. Q., Rahmawati, A. I., Cahyadi, A., Haryono, E., & Adji, T. N. (2022). Variation of saturation indices (SIcal) with respect to calcite mineral at Kalisirah and Jumbleng Springs, South Karangbolong Karst, Central Java, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1039(1), 012001.
• Eiche, E., Hochschild, M., Haryono, E., & Neumann, T. (2016). Characterization of recharge and flow behaviour of different water sources in Gunung Kidul and its Impact on water quality based on hydrochemical and physico-chemical monitoring. Applied Water Science, 6, 293-307.
• Falowo, O., & Daramola, A. S. (2023). Geo-appraisal of groundwater resource for sustainable exploitation and management in Ibulesoro, Southwestern Nigeria. Turkish Journal of Engineering, 7(3), 236-258.
• Maizar, N. T., & Hastuti, M. S. (2017). Groundwater geochemistry in Karst Area of Gunungkidul, Yogyakarta Special Regency (Geokimia airtanah di Kawasan Karst Gunungkidul, DIY). Proceeding of National Seminar on Research and Community Service, Faculty of Engineering Universitas Bangka Belitung, 272-277, Pangkal Pinang. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/229878798.pdf
• Hodgson, F. D. I. (2004). Processing and Presentation of Data, in V. S. Kovalevsky, G. P. Kruseman, & Rushton, K. R. An International Guide for Hydrogeological Investigations, UNESCO, 3, 95-118, Paris. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000134432
• Zhang, B., Zhao, D., Zhou, P., Qu, S., Liao, F., & Wang, G. (2020). Hydrochemical characteristics of groundwater and dominant water–rock interactions in the Delingha Area, Qaidam Basin, Northwest China. Water, 12, 836, 1-16.
• Yuan, J., Xu, F., Deng, G., Tank, Y., & Li, P. (2017). Hydrogeochemistry of shallow groundwater in a karst aquifer system of Bijie City, Guizhou Province. Water, 9:625, 1-16.
• Surono. (2008). Sedimentation of the Semilir Formation in Sendang Village, Wuryantoro, Wonogiri, Central Java (Sedimentasi Formasi Semilir di Desa Sendang, Wuryantoro, Wonogiri, Jawa Tengah). Jurnal Sumber Daya Geologi, 28(1), 29-41. (In Indonesian)
• Surono. (2009). Lithostratigraphy of the eastern southern mountains of the Special Region of Yogyakarta and Central Java (Litostratigrafi pegunungan selatan bagian timur Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta dan Jawa Tengah). Jurnal Sumber Daya Geologi, 19(3), 209-221. (In Indonesian)
• Dar, A. F., Jeelani, G., Perrin, J., & Ahmed, S. (2021). Groundwater recharge in semi-arid karst context using chloride and stable water isotopes. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 14, 1-13.
• Jaroun, A., & Günal, A. Y. (2022). Investigation of the impact of the implementation of the coastal aquifer management plan on nitrate pollution in Gaza Strip Aquifer using modeling techniques. Turkish Journal of Engineering, 6(4), 282-292.
• Dursun, S., & Sarcan, A. (2022). Determination of water quality in Hadim District of Konya (Turkey) and the investigation of disinfection efficiency. Advanced Engineering Science, 2, 101-108.
• Sahinkaya, S., & Özgüroğlu, G. (2021). Removal of COD and surfactants from grey water by Fenton type processes. Turkish Journal of Engineering, 5(2), 69-74.
• Kelly, W. R., Panno, S. V., & Hackley, K. (2012). The Sources distribution, and trends of chloride in the Waters of Illinois, Praire Research Institute and University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1-53, Illinois.. https://www.isws.illinois.edu/pubdoc/b/iswsb-74.pdf
• Schmidt, S., Geyer, T., Marei, A., & Guttman, J. (2013). Quantification of long-term wastewater impacts on karst groundwater resources in a semi-arid environment by chloride mass balance methods. Journal of Hydrology, 502, 177-190.
• Eren, M., Kadir, S., & Akgöz, M. (2017). Mıneralogical, geochemical and micromorphological characteristics of calcite precıpıtated from a thin cover of recent water taken from the stalagmıtes in Küpeli Cave, Esenpinar (Erdemli, Mersin), Southern Turkey. Turkish Journal of Engineering, 1(2), 44-51.
• Nayono, S., Helmut, L., Kopfmuller, J., & Londong, J. (2011). Options for decentralized waste water treatment in rural karst area in Gunungkidul: social acceptance. Proceeding of Asian Trans-Disclipinary Karst Conference, Faculty of Geography Universitas Gadjah Mada, 1-11, Yogyakarta Indonesia.
• Falowo, O., & Daramola, A. S. (2023). Geo-Appraisal of groundwater resource for sustainable exploitation and management in Ibulesoro, Southwestern Nigeria. Turkish Journal of Engineering, 7(3), 236-258.
• Setiadi, J., Suratman, E., & Haryono, E. (2020). The evaluation of land use in Gunung Sewu Geopark Area. International Journal of Environmental Science and Management, 1(1), 13-28.
• Gupta, P., & Sarma, K. (2018). Spatial distribution of groundwater quality, depth and plant species diversity in National Capital Territory (NTC) of Delhi, India. International Journal of Conservation Science, 9(2), 351-360.
• Eblin, S. G., Anoh, K. A., Yao, A. B., Soro, N., Nedeff, V., Mosenegutu, E., & Sandu, A. V. (2019). Mapping groundwater vulnerability to pollution in the Region of Adiake, Shouteast Coastal of Côte D’ioire: a comparative study of three (3) methods. International Journal of Conservation Science, 10(3), 493-506.
• Arici, Ö. K. (2022). Geological factors in solid waste landfill site selection. Andvanced Engineering Science, 2, 35-43.
• Živanović, V. (2015). Delineation of karst groundwater protection zones. In: Karst Aquifer Characterization and Engineering., Springer, 625–631, New York.
• Sahu, P. C. (2017a). Groundwater resource conservation and augmentation in hard rock terrain: an integrated geological and geo-spatial approach. International Journal of Conservation Science, 8(1), 145-156.
• Tona, A. U., Demir, V., Kuşak, L., & Yakar, M. (2022). Su kaynakları mühendisliğinde CBS’nin kullanımı. Türkiye Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Dergisi, 4(1), 23-33
• Sahu, P. C. (2017b). Status of groundwater sactuary and aspects of its conservation. International Journal of Conservation Science, 8(4), 731-742