Ethnic-based cyberbullying: The role of adolescents’ and their peers’ attitudes towards immigrants

Abstract

The rate of migration has increased in Turkey in recent years. The school setting is the most important area for socialization and acculturation for immigrant adolescents. It is also the place where they might be exposed to negative attitudes and behaviors from their peers. Immigrant adolescents are at risk of experiencing ethnic-based cyberbullying; however, the research on its causes was limited despite the growing numbers of immigrant adolescents. We examined (a) the predictive role of adolescents' and their peers' attitudes toward immigrant adolescents’ ethnic-based cyberbullying behaviors and (b) whether the immigrant background of the cyber victim affects adolescents' reasoning about cyberbullying toward immigrants. To address the research questions, we used a mixed-method design. The sample included 139 participants (X̄age=13.16, SD=0.94) who attended two different secondary schools in Ankara. We found that both adolescents' and their peers' negative attitudes predicted ethnic-based cyberbullying. However, a positive attitude toward immigrants was not found to be related to ethnic-based cyberbullying. Qualitative analysis results regarding ethnic discrimination were interpreted within the framework of behavioral privacy. The present study highlighted that immigrant students are more likely to be cyber victimized in the presence of a negative attitude toward immigrants at the class level.

Keywords

• Attitude toward immigrants
• Ethnic-based cyberbullying
• Immigrant students
• Peer attitude toward immigrants

Etnik temelli siber zorbalık: Ergenlerin ve akranlarının göçmenlere yönelik tutumlarının rolü

Abstract

Türkiye’de göç oranları son yıllarda artmaktadır. Okul ortamları göçmen çocuk ve ergenlerin sosyalleşme ve kültürleşme süreçlerinde önemlidir. Ancak göçmenler okullarda zorbalık ve ayrımcılık gibi olumsuz tutum ve davranışlara da maruz kalabilmektedir. Göçmen ergenler etnik temelli siber zorbalığa maruz kalma riski altındadır. Ancak göçmen ergenlerin artan sayılarına rağmen siber zorbalığın nedenlerine ilişkin çalışmaların sınırlı olduğu görülmektedir. Bu çalışmada a) ergenlerin ve akranlarının göçmen ergenlere yönelik tutumlarının etnik temelli siber zorbalık davranışlarındaki yordayıcı rolü ve (b) siber mağdurun göçmen olmasının ergenlerin göçmenlere yönelik siber zorbalık davranışında bir neden olup olmadığı incelenmiştir. Araştırma sorularının incelenmesinde karma desen yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Çalışmanın örneklemi Ankara’da iki farklı ortaokulda öğrenim gören 139 ergenden (X̄yaş=13,16, SS=0,94) oluşmaktadır. Bulgular hem ergenin hem de akranının göçmenlere yönelik olumsuz tutumunun etnik temelli siber zorbalığı yordadığını göstermiştir. Ancak, göçmelere yönelik pozitif tutum etnik temelli siber zorbalıkla ilişkili bulunmamıştır. Etnik ayrımcılığa yönelik nitel analiz sonuçları davranışsal gizlilik çerçevesinde yorumlanmıştır. Çalışmanın sonuçları okul ortamında göçmenlere yönelik olumsuz tutumların göçmen öğrencilerin siber zorbalık davranışına maruz kalma ihtimallerini arttırdığını göstermiştir.

Keywords

• Akranların göçmenlere yönelik tutumu
• Etnik temelli siber zorbalık
• Göçmenlere yönelik tutum
• Göçmen öğrenciler

References

1. Abreu, R. L., & Kenny, M. C. (2018). Cyberbullying and LGBTQ youth: A systematic literature review and recommendations for prevention and intervention. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 11(1), 81-97. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s40653-017-0175-7
2. Affan, I. Z. (2013). An Exploratory Examination of Racial Cyberbullying (Unpublished doctoral dissertation) McGill University.
3. Agirdag, O., Demanet, J., Van Houtte, M., & Van Avermaet, P. (2011). Ethnic school composition and peer victimization: A focus on the interethnic school climate. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(4), 465-473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.09.009
4. Ataman, A., Çok, F., & Şener, T. (2012). Understanding civic engagement among young Roma and young Turkish people in Turkey. Human Affairs, 22(3), 419-433. https://doi.org/10.2478/s13374-012-0034-z
5. Avcı, A. (2020). Migration and perception of immigration in 9-14 years old children's pictorial expressions (Unpublished master's thesis), Pamukkale University.
6. Bağcı, S., & Gürler, C. N. (2018). Attitudes and behavıoral tendencies towards foreign students: The predictıve role of national identity and social dominance orientation. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 17(67), 1167-1180. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/510475
7. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.
8. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173-1182. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.917.2326&rep=rep1&type=pdf

9. Barlett, C., Douglas, G., &Chew, C. (2016) Predicting cyberbullying from anonymity. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 5(2): 171-180. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000055
10. Barlett, C. P., Prot, S., Anderson, C. A., & Gentile, D. A. (2017). An empirical examination of the strength differential hypothesis in cyberbullying behavior. Psychology of Violence, 7(1), 22-32. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000032
11. Barry, A. E., Merianos, A. L., Montgomery, L., Rosen, B. L., & Smith, M. L. (2017). Impact of perceived risk and friend influence on alcohol, and marijuana use among students. The Journal of School Nursing, 33(6), 446-455. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059840517717591
12. Bauman, S. (2015). Types of cyberbullying. Cyberbullying: What Counselors Need to Know. In S. Bauman (Ed.), Cyberbullying, (pp. 53-58). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119221685.ch4
13. Bayram Özdemir, S., Özdemir, M., & Stattin, H. (2019). Ethnic harassment and immigrant youth's engagement in violent behaviors: understanding the risk factors. Child Development, 90(3), 808-824. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12975
14. Bayram Özdemir, S., & Stattin, H. (2014). Why and when is ethnic harassment a risk for immigrant adolescents’ school adjustment? Understanding the processes and conditions. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 1252-1265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-0038-y
15. Betts, L. R., & Spenser, K. A. (2017). Developing the cyber victimization experiences and cyberbullying behaviors scales. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 178(3), 147-164. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2017.1295222
16. Bjereld, Y., Daneback, K., & Petzold, M. (2015). Differences in prevalence of bullying victimization between native and immigrant children in the Nordic countries: a parent‐reported serial cross‐sectional study. Child: Care, Health and Development, 41(4), 593-599. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12184
17. Bogardus, E. (1968). Comparing racial distance in Ethiopia, South Africa, and the United States. Sociology and Social Research, 50, 149-156.
18. Boulton, M., Lloyd, J., Down, J., & Marx, H. (2012). Predicting undergraduates' self-reported engagement in traditional and cyberbullying from attitudes. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(3), 141-147. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2011.0369
19. Calvete, E., Orue, I., Estévez, A., Villardón, L., & Padilla, P. (2010). Cyberbullying in adolescents: Modalities and aggressors’ profile. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(5), 1128-1135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.017
20. Carrera‐Fernández, M. V., Cid‐Fernández, X. M., Almeida, A., González‐Fernández, A., & Rodríguez Castro, Y. (2019). Gender‐Bashing in Adolescents: Structural Relations with Heterosexual Matrix, Racism/Xenophobia and Attitudes Toward Bullying. Journal of School Health, 89(7), 536-548. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12778
21. Comas-Forgas, R., Sureda-Negre, J., & Calvo-Sastre, A. (2017). Characteristics of Cyberbullying Among Native and Immigrant Secondary Education Students. International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and Learning (IJCBPL), 7(1), 1- 17. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJCBPL.2017010101
22. Crosnoe, R., Johnson, M. K., & Elder Jr, G. H. (2004). Intergenerational bonding in school: The behavioral and contextual correlates of student-teacher relationships. Sociology of Education, 77(1), 60-81. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/003804070407700103?casa_token=0vBHWKf_8V0AAAAA%3AbibR--XXDsOPxovWxzklIQFmr01f-4wjqcZfsPLTsDtvPiQHR5k2pZk3E7aCmWFUV_ltw1C-1QKZ&
23. Degner, J., & Wentura, D. (2010). Automatic prejudice in childhood and early adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(3), 356-374. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017993
24. D’hondt, F., Eccles, J. S., Van Houtte, M., & Stevens, P. A. (2017). The relationships of teacher ethnic discrimination, ethnic identification, and host national identification to school misconduct of Turkish and Moroccan immigrant adolescents in Belgium. Deviant Behavior, 38(3), 318-333. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2016.1197004
25. Doane, A. N., Pearson, M. R., & Kelley, M. L. (2014). Predictors of cyberbullying perpetration among college students: An application of the theory of reasoned action. Computers in Human Behavior, 36, 154-162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.03.051
26. Durkin, K., Hunter, S., Levin, K. A., Bergin, D., Heim, D., & Howe, C. (2012). Discriminatory peer aggression among children as a function of minority status and group proportion in school context. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42(2), 243-251. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.870
27. Ekström, M., & Östman, J. (2013). Family talk, peer talk and young people’s civic orientation. European Journal of Communication, 28(3), 294-308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323113475410
28. Ersoy, A. F., & Ala, M. (2019). Opinions on Syrian Refugees and Asylum Seekers: A Qualitative Research in Osmaniye. Üçüncü Sektör Sosyal Ekonomi Dergisi, 54(3), 1343-1356. https://doi.org/10.15659/3.sektor-sosyal-ekonomi.19.09.1181
29. Feng, Y., French, D. C., Jin, S., Li, L., Lu, T., & Niu, L. (2017). Tobacco use by middle and high school Chinese adolescents and their friends. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 46(6), 1262-1274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0563-6.
30. Georgiades, K., Boyle, M. H., & Fife, K. A. (2013). Emotional and behavioral problems among adolescent students: The role of immigrant, racial/ethnic congruence and belongingness in schools. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(9), 1473-1492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9868-2
31. Gniewosz, B., & Noack, P. (2015). Parental influences on adolescents’ negative attitudes toward immigrants. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(9), 1787-1802. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0291-3
32. Guerra, R., Rodrigues, R. B., Aguiar, C., Carmona, M., Alexandre, J., & Lopes, R. C. (2019). School achievement and well-being of immigrant children: The role of acculturation orientations and perceived discrimination. Journal of School Psychology, 75, 104-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.07.004
33. Guerin, S. & Hennessy, E. (2002). Pupils' definitions of bullying. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 17(3), 249-262. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF03173535.pdf
34. Harris, J. R. (1995). Where is the child's environment? A group socialization theory of development. Psychological Review, 102(3), 458-489. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.102.3.458
35. Henry, J. (2013). Bias-based cyberbullying: the next hate crime frontier?. Criminal Law Bulletin, 49(3), 481-503. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2331371
36. Hjern, A., Rajmil, L., Bergstrom, M., Berlin, M., Gustafsson, P. A., & Modin, B. (2013). Migrant density and well-being A national school survey of 15-year-olds in Sweden. The European Journal of Public Health, 23(5), 823-828. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ ckt106.
37. Horenczyk, G., & Tatar, M. (2012). Conceptualising the school acculturative context. School, classroom and the immigrant student. In A. S. Masten, K. Liebkind & D. J. Hernandez (Eds.), Realizing the potential of immigrant youth (pp. 359-375). Cambridge University Press.
38. Karapanos, E., Teixeira, P., & Gouveia, R. (2016). Need fulfillment and experiences on social media: A case on Facebook and WhatsApp. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 888-897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.10.015
39. Kırcaburun, K., & Baştuğ, İ. (2016). Predicting cyberbullying tendencies of adolescents with problematic internet use. International Journal of Social Science (48), 385-396. http://dx.doi.org/10.9761/JASSS3597
40. Kim, S., & Faith, M. S. (2020). Cyberbullying and ICT use by immigrant youths: A serial multiple-mediator SEM analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 110, 104621, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104621
41. Kuş, Z., & Tarhan, Ö. (2016). Political education in social studies classrooms: a perspective from Turkey. Journal of Theory and Practice in Education, 12(3), 464-483. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/262352
42. Le, T. N., & Johansen, S. (2011). The relationship between school multiculturalism and interpersonal violence: an exploratory study. Journal of School Health, 81(11), 688-695. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2011.00645.x?casa_token=as-eJIPKCIYAAAAA:N7_Zr0MagnEXmsKPvfQ6-I9n5RjoesTUeOxwftdz7nA8WBcy2cb8zMKIOeyGojLT0dPx9F6bNlrYCIo
43. Llorent, V. J., Ortega-Ruiz, R., & Zych, I. (2016). Bullying and cyberbullying in minorities: Are they more vulnerable than the majority group?. Frontiers in Psychology, 7(1507), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01507
44. Mayring, P. (2000). Qualitative content analysis. Forum: Qualitative Social Research 1, Art. 20. http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/issue/view/28
45. Miklikowska, M., Bohman, A., & Titzmann, P. F. (2019). Driven by context? The interrelated effects of parents, peers, classrooms on development of prejudice among Swedish majority adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 55(11), 2451. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/dev0000809
46. OECD (2017). International Migration Report 2017. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/migrationreport/docs/MigrationReport2017.pdf.
47. OECD (2019). PISA 2018 Results, Combined Executive Summaries Volume I, II & III https://www.oecd.org/pisa/Combined_Executive_Summaries_PISA_2018.pdf).
48. Özdemir, S. B., Sun, S., Korol, L., Özdemir, M., & Stattin, H. (2018). Adolescents’ engagement in ethnic harassment: Prejudiced beliefs in social networks and classroom ethnic diversity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(6), 1151-1163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0795-0
49. Park, H., Gönültaş, S., Mulvey, K. L., Killen, M., & Ruck, M. D. (2019). Male adolescents' and young adults' evaluations of interracial exclusion in offline and online settings. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 22(10), 641-647. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2019.0102
50. Plenty, S., & Jonsson, J. O. (2017). Social exclusion among peers: the role of immigrant status and classroom immigrant density. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46, 1275-1288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0564-5.
51. Price-Feeney, M., Jones, L. M., Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2018). The relationship between bias-based peer victimization and depressive symptomatology across sexual and gender identity. Psychology of Violence, 8(6), 680-691. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000219
52. Rodríguez-Hidalgo, A. J., Calmaestra, J., Casas, J. A., & Ortega-Ruiz, R. (2019). Ethnic-cultural bullying versus personal bullying: specificity and measurement of discriminatory aggression and victimization among adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 46. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00046
53. Rodríguez-Hidalgo, A. J., Solera, E., & Calmaestra, J. (2018). Psychological predictors of cyberbullying according to ethnic-cultural origin in adolescents: a national study in Spain. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 49(10), 1506-1522. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022118795283
54. Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W. M., & Bowker, J. C. (2015). Children in peer groups. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Vol. 4. Ecological settings and processes (7th ed., pp. 175-222). NJ: Wiley.
55. Schnell, P., Keskiner, E., & Crul, M. (2013). Success against the odds: Educational pathways of disadvantaged second-generation Turks in France and the Netherlands. Education Inquiry, 4(1), 125-147. doi:10.3402/edui.v4i1.22065
56. Schumann, L., Craig, W., & Rosu, A. (2013). Minority in the majority: Community ethnicity as a context for racial bullying and victimization. Journal of Community Psychology, 41(8), 959-972. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21585
57. Sinclair, K. O., Bauman, S., Poteat, V. P., Koenig, B., & Russell, S. T. (2012). Cyber and bias-based harassment: Associations with academic, substance use, and mental health problems. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50(5), 521-523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.09.009
58. Stevens, G. W., Boer, M., Titzmann, P. F., Cosma, A., & Walsh, S. D. (2020). Immigration status and bullying victimization: Associations across national and school contexts. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 66, 101075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101075
59. Strohmeier, D., Kärnä, A., & Salmivalli, C. (2011). Intrapersonal and interpersonal risk factors for peer victimization in immigrant youth in Finland. Developmental Psychology, 47(1), 248-258. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020785
60. Strohmeier, D., & Spiel, C. (2003). Immigrant children in Austria: Aggressive behavior and friendship patterns in multicultural school classes. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 19(2), 99-116. https://doi.org/10.1300/J008v19n02_07
61. Taylor, J. B. (2017). The Puzzle of Extreme Media and Political Tolerance: An Immigration Case Study. In Extreme Media and American Politics (pp. 129-158). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
62. Sulkowski, M. L., Bauman, S., Wright, S., Nixon, C., & Davis, S. (2014). Peer victimization in youth from immigrant and non-immigrant US families. School Psychology International, 35(6), 649-669. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034314554968
63. Titzmann, P. F., Brenick, A., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2015). Friendships fighting prejudice: A longitudinal perspective on adolescents’ cross-group friendships with immigrants. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44, 1318–1331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964- 015-0256-6.
64. Topcu, Ç. (2014). Modeling the relationships among coping strategies, emotion regulation, rumination, and perceived social support in victims of cyber and traditional bullying. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Middle East Technical University.
65. TUIK, (2018) Uluslararası göç istatistikleri [International migration statistics]. http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?alt_id=1067
66. Tynes, B. M., Giang, M. T., Williams, D. R., & Thompson, G. N. (2008). Online racial discrimination and psychological adjustment among adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 43(6), 565-569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.08.021
67. Van Zalk, M. H. W., Kerr, M., Van Zalk, N., & Stattin, H. (2013). Xenophobia and tolerance toward immigrants in adolescence: Cross-influence processes within friendships. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(4), 627-639. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9745-9.
68. Vitoroulis, I., & Georgiades, K. (2017). Bullying among immigrant and non-immigrant early adolescents: School-and student-level effects. Journal of Adolescence, 61, 141-151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.10.008
69. Wang, C., Wang, W., Zheng, L., & Atwal, K. (2016, September). Bullying Prevention as a Social Justice Issue: Implications with Asian American Elementary School Students. In School Psychology Forum (Vol. 10, No. 3).
70. Waterloo, S. F., Baumgartner, S. E., Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2018). Norms of online expressions of emotion: Comparing Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and WhatsApp. New Media & Society, 20(5), 1813-1831. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817707349.
71. Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2011). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri [Research Methods in Social Science] (8th ed.). Seçkin.