Revenge or Forgiveness? An Equation With Multiple Variables in Organizational Setting

Yıl 2018, Cilt: 18 Sayı: 4, 591 - 603, 23.10.2018

Ceren Deniz Tatarlar Burcu Güneri Çangarlı

Öz

Human development measures the level of proThis exploratory study focuses on the concept of revenge in workplace. It attempts to understand how revenge is conceptualized by managers and employees, their revenge motives and strategies. Given the sensitivity of the subject, in-depth interview was chosen as the data collection method. Interviews were conducted with 10 people working in various positions in public and private sectors. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed with the help of discourse analysis. Findings are discussed around the emerging themes (perceptions of revenge, revenge motives, revenge strategies and forgiving). The research contributes to a better understanding of the antecedents and consequences of revenge, how different positions make difference in revenge strategies and motives, and in what kind of situations and intentions lead people to forgive instead of focusing on revenge.

Anahtar Kelimeler

organizational revenge, orgiveness, qualitative research

İntikam mı Affetme mi? Örgütsel Yaşamda Çok Bilinmeyenli Bir Denklem

Öz

Çalışmada iş yaşamında intikam kavramına odaklanılmış, bireyler tarafından intikam olgusunun nasıl kavramsallaştırıldığı, hangi davranışlarla kendini gösterdiği anlaşılmaya çalışılmıştır. Konunun hassasiyeti göz önüne alınarak, derinlemesine görüşme veri toplama yöntemi olarak seçilmiş, kamu ve özel sektörde çeşitli pozisyonlarda çalışan 10 kişiyle görüşmeler yapılmıştır. Yapılan görüşmeler bire bir transkriptlere aktarılmış ve söylem analizinden yararlanılarak değerlendirilmiştir. Bulgular; oluşan temalar (intikam kavramının nasıl algılandığı, intikamı güdüleyen durumlar, intikam alma şekilleri ve affetme niyeti) çerçevesinde tartışılmıştır. Araştırma iş yaşamında pek çok olumsuz davranışın temeli olarak görülen intikam kavramının öncüllerinin ve sonuçlarının, çeşitli pozisyonların hem intikam alma şekillerinde hem de güdülenmede yarattığı farklılıkların, affetme niyetinin hangi durumlarda ve hangi sebeplerle ortaya çıktığının daha iyi anlaşılmasına katkı vermektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

örgütsel intikam, affetme, nitel araştırma

Kaynakça

• Adugit, Y. (2008). İntikam: Adaletin Estetiği. Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, 1(1), 11-32.
• Akın, M., Özdevecioğlu, M., & Ünlü, O. (2012). Örgütlerde intikam niyeti ve affetme eğiliminin çalışanların ruh sağlıkları ile ilişkisi. Amme İdaresi Dergisi, 45(1), 77-97.
• Allred, K. G. (1999). Anger and Retaliation: Toward an Understanding of Impassioned Conflict in Organizations. In R.J. Bies, R.J. Lewicki, & B.H. Sheppard (Eds.) Research on negotiations in organizations. 7. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
• Aquino, K., Tripp, T.M., Bies, R. J. (2001). How employees respond to personal offense: The effects of blame attribution, victim status, and offender status on revenge and reconciliation in the workplace. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), Feb 2001, 52-59.
• Aquino, K., Tripp, T. M., & Bies, R. J. (2006). Getting even or moving on? Power, procedural justice, and types of offense as predictors of revenge, forgiveness, reconciliation, and avoidance in organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 653–668. Aycan, Z. (2001). Paternalistic leadership. Wiley encyclopedia of management.
• Aycan, Z. (2006). Paternalism. Indigenous and cultural psychology, 445-466.
• Ayten, A. (2009). Affedicilik ve din: affetme eğilimi ve dindarlıkla ilişkisi üzerine ampirik bir araştırma.
• Bacon, F. (1902). Of revenge. The Essays of Francis Bacon.
• Baker, K. A. (2002). Organizational communication. Retrieved June, 7, 2009.
• Barley, S. R., & Tolbert, P. S. (1997). Institutionalization and structuration: Studying the links between action and institution. Organization studies, 18(1), 93-117.
• Berkman, Ü., & Özen, Ş. (2008). Culture and management in Turkey: State-dependency and paternalism in transition. Gestion en contexte interculturel: Approches, problématiques, pratiques et plongées. Québec, Presse de l’Université Laval et Télé-université (UQAM).
• Bies, R. J., & Tripp, T. M. (1995). The use and abuse of power: Justice as social control. Organizational politics, justice, and support: Managing social climate at work, 131-145.
• Bies, R. J., Tripp, T. M. (1996). Beyond distrust: “Getting even” and the need for revenge. In R. M. Kramer & T. Tyler (Eds.), Trust in organizations. 246–260. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
• Bies, R. J., Tripp, T. M. (2005). The Study of Revenge in the Workplace: Conceptual, Ideological and Empirical Issues. Fox, Suzy (Ed); Spector, Paul E. (Ed). Counterproductive work behavior: Investigations of actors and targets. 65-81. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. vii.
• Bies, R. J., Tripp, T. M., & Kramer, R. M. (1997). At the breaking point: Cognitive and social dynamics of revenge in organizations. In R. Giacalone & J. Greenberg (Eds.). Antisocial behavior in organizations. 18–36. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Bradfield, M., Aquino, K. (1999). The effects of blame attributions and offender likableness on revenge and forgiveness in the workplace. Journal of Management, 2. 607–631.
• Brose, L. A., Rye, M. S., Lutz-Zois, C., & Ross, S. R. (2005). Forgiveness and personality traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 39(1), 35-46.
• Bugay, A., & Demir, A. (2012). Affetme Arttırılabilinir mi?: Affetmeyi Geliştirme Grubu. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 4(37), 96-106.
• Cameron, K., & Caza, A. (2002). Organizational and leadership virtues and the role of forgiveness. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 9(1), 33-48.
• Carson, D. J., Gilmore, A., Gronhaug, K., Perry, C. (2001). Qualitative Marketing Research. London, UK: Sage.
• Cheng, B. S., Chou, L. F., Wu, T. Y., Huang, M. P., & Farh, J. L. (2004). Paternalistic leadership and subordinate responses: Establishing a leadership model in Chinese organizations. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 7(1), 89-117.
• Cosgrove, L., & Konstam, V. (2008). Forgiveness and forgetting: Clinical implications for mental health counselors. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 30(1), 1-13.
• Creswell, J. W. (2015). Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri: Beş Yaklaşıma Göre Nitel Araştırma ve Araştırma Deseni, (çev. ed.) M. Bütün & S. B. Dukes, S. (1984). Phenomenological methodology in the human sciences. Journal of religion and health, 23(3), 197-203.
• Edwards, A. L. (1957). The social desirability variable in personality assessment and research. Elangovan, A. R., & Shapiro, D. L. (1998). Betrayal of trust in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 23(3), 547-566.
• Enright, R. D., Gassin, E. A., & Wu, C. R. (1992). Forgiveness: A developmental view.
• Erben, G. S. (2004). Toplumsal kültür aile kültürü etkileşimi bağlamında paternalizm boyutuyla işletme kültürü: Türkiye örneği. İçinde T. Koçel (ed.), 1, 345-356.
• Fitzgibbons, R. P. (1986). The cognitive and emotive uses of forgiveness in the treatment of anger. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 23(4), 629.
• Folger, R. (1987). Reformulating the preconditions of resentment: A referent cognitions model. In J. C. Masters & W.P. Smith (Eds.). Social comparison, justice, and relative deprivation: Theoretical, empirical, and policy perspectives. 183-215. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Folger, R. (1993). Reactions to mistreatment at work. In J. K. Murmighan (Ed.). Social psychology in organizations: Advances in theory and research. 161–183. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Folger, R., & Skarlicki, D. P. (1998). A popcorn metaphor for employee aggression.
• Fox, S., & Spector, P. E. (1999). A model of work frustration–aggression. Journal of organizational behavior, 20(6), 915-931.
• Güllü, S., & Şahin, S. (2016). Antrenörlerin İntikam (Öç Alma) Davranışlarının Bazı Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi. Journal of International Social Research, 9(47).
• Güneri-Çangarlı, B. (2016). Turkey: East of West, West of East. Omari, M., & Paull, M. (Ed.). Workplace abuse, incivility and bullying: Methodological and cultural perspectives. Routledge.
• Hebl, J. H., & Enright, R. D. (1993). Forgiveness as a psychotherapeutic goal with elderly females. Psychotherapy-Rıver Edge-, 30, 658-658.
• Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values (Vol. 5). UK: Sage.
• Hollinger, R. C., Clark, J. P. (1983). Theft by Employees. Lexington Books. Lexington, MA. House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.). (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. UK: Sage publications.
• Jackson, P., Suomi, R. (2004). E-Business and Workplace Redesign. p.37. Jermier, J. M., Knights, D., Nord, W. R. (1994). Resistance and power in organizations. New York: Routledge.
• Jones, D. A. (2009). Getting even with one’s supervisor and one’s organization: Relationships among types of injustice, desires for revenge, and counterproductive work behaviors. Journal of organizational behavior, 30(4), 525-542.
• Jones, D. A., & Carroll, S. A. (2007). Revenge is a dish best served cold: Avengers’ accounts of calculated revenge cognitions and assessment of a proposed measure.
• Köksal, O. (2011). Bir Kültürel Liderlik Paradoksu: Paternalizm/A Cultural Leadership Paradox: Paternalism. Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 8(15).
• Leymann, H. (1996). The content and development of mobbing at work. European Journal of Work And Organizational Psychology, 5(2), 165-184.
• McCullough, M. E., Rachal, K. C., Sandage, S. J., Worthington Jr, E. L., Brown, S. W., & Hight, T. L. (1998). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships: II. Theoretical elaboration and measurement. Journal Of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(6), 1586.
• McLean Parks, J. (1997). The Fourth Arm of Justice: The Art and Science of Revenge. In R.J. Lewicki, R.J. Bies, and B.H. Sheppard (Eds.). Research on negotiation in organizations. 6. 113-144. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
• Nargundkar, R. (2003). Marketing research-Text & cases 2E. Tata McGraw-Hill Education.
• Nayir, K. F. (2015). Öğretmen Adaylarının Öç Alma Davranışına İlişkin Görüşleri. Electronic Turkish Studies, 10(11).
• Neuman, J. H., Baron, R. A. (1997). Aggression in the workplace. In R.A. Giacalone and J. Greenberg (Eds.). Antisocial behavior in organizations. 37-67. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• O’Leary-Kelly, A. M., Griffin, R. W., Glew, D.J. (1996). Organization-motivated aggression: A research framework. Academy of Management Review, 21, 225-253.
• Özdevecioğlu, M., “Organizasyonlarda İntikam Niyeti (Revenge Intention) ve Adalet Algılamasının Rolünü Belirlemeye Yönelik Bir Araştırma”, 16. Ulusal Yönetim ve Organizasyon Kongre Kitabı, 2008, ss.381-385.
• Paull, M., Omari, M., & Standen, P. (2012). When is a bystander not a bystander? A typology of the roles of bystanders in workplace bullying. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 50(3), 351-366.
• Poyraz, K., & KAMA, U. B. (2008). Algılanan iş güvencesinin, iş tatmini, örgütsel bağlılık ve işten ayrılma niyeti üzerindeki etkilerinin incelenmesi. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 13(2).
• Robinson, S. L., Bennett, R. J. (1995). A typology of deviant workplace behaviors: A multidimensional scaling study. Academy of Management Journal. 38, 555-572. Sargut, A. (2001). Kültürlerarası Farklılaşma ve Yönetim. 2. Baskı, Ankara: İmge Kitabevi
• Sarıçam, H., & Biçer, B. (2015). Affedicilik üzerinde ahlaki değer ve öz-anlayışın açıklayıcı rolü. Gazi Üniversitesi Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 35(1).
• Saunders, M. N. (2011). Research methods for business students, 5/e. Pearson Education India.
• Sheppard, B. H., Lewicki, R. J., Minton, J. W. (1992). Organizational justice: The search for fairness in the workplace. New York: Lexington Books.
• Sitz, L. (2008). Beyond semiotics and hermeneutics. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal. 11(2). 177-191.
• Skarlicki, D. P., Folger, R. (1997). Retaliation in the workplace: The roles of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice. Journal of Applied Psychology. 82. 434–443.
• Solmaz, B. (2006). Söylenti ve dedikodu yönetimi. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, (16), 565-575.
• Soylu, S. (2011). Creating a family or loyalty-based framework: The effects of paternalistic leadership on workplace bullying. Journal of Business Ethics, 99(2), 217-231.
• Spiggle, S. (1994). Analysis and Interpretation of Qualitative Data. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(3), 491-503.
• Strauss, A., Corbin, J. M. (1998). Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. UK: Sage.
• Stuckless, N., Goranson, R. (1992). The Vengeance Scale: Development of a Measure of Attitudes Toward Revenge. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality. 7(1). 25-42.
• Şener, E., & Çoşkun, V. (2015). Örgütsel intikam. Beta Basım Yayım Dağıtım.
• Şener, E., & Çetinkaya, F. F. (2015). Bir Liderlik Özelliği Olarak Affetme ve Örgütsel Düzeyde Etkileri Üzerine Bir İnceleme. İşletme Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7(4), 24-42.
• Şener, E., Çetinkaya, F. F., & Akkoca, Y. Hidden Side of the Employee Relations: The Relationship between Impression Management and Revenge Intention.
• Tatarlar, C. ve Güneri Çangarlı, B. (2014). Madalyonun iki yüzü: örgütsel intikam davranışlarında yöneten ve yönetilen, 22. Ulusal Yönetim ve Organizasyon Kongresi, 22-24 Mayıs, Konya.
• Tepper, B. J., Carr, J. C., Breaux, D. M., Geider, S., Hu, C., & Hua, W. (2009). Abusive supervision, intentions to quit, and employees’ workplace deviance: A power/ dependence analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109(2), 156-167.
• Thompson, L. Y., Snyder, C. R., Hoffman, L., Michael, S. T., Rasmussen, H. N., Billings, L. S., ... & Roberts, D. E. (2005). Dispositional forgiveness of self, others, and situations. Journal of Personality, 73(2), 313360.
• Tripp, T. M., Bies, R. J., Aquino, K. (2007). A Vigilante Model of Justice: Revenge, Reconciliation, Forgiveness and Avoidance. Social Justice Research. 20(1). 10-34.
• Türk Dil Kurumu (2017) Online güncel sözlük erişim adresi: http://www.tdk.gov.tr/index. php?option=com_gts&arama=gts&guid=TDK. GTS.5bc07de44870c4.83587528
• Uysal, V. (2015). Genç yetişkinlerde affetme eğilimleri ve dinî yönelim/dindarlık.
• Yılmaz, Ö. D. (2015). Algılanan Mağduriyetin Affetme Eğilimi Ve İntikam Niyeti Üzerindeki Etkisi: Konaklama İşletmeleri Çalışanlarına Yönelik Bir Araştırma. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 16(1), 87-106.
• Younger, J. W., Piferi, R. L., Jobe, R. L., & Lawler, K. A. (2004). Dimensions of forgiveness: The views of laypersons. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 21(6), 837-855.
• Zapf, D. (1999). Organisational, work group related and personal causes of mobbing/bullying at work. International journal of manpower, 20(1/2), 70-85.
• Zeelenberg, M., Van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S., & vanr de Pligt, J. (2000). On bad decisions and disconfirmed expectancies: The psychology of regret and disappointment. Cognition & Emotion, 14(4), 521-541.