Predictors of Media Emotion Regulation and Its Consequences for Children’s Socioemotional Development

Year 2024, Volume: 16 Issue: 3, 569 - 584, 30.09.2024

Gizem Koç Arık

https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1368538

Abstract

Media emotion regulation has been defined as parents’ use of media to regulate their children's emotions in early childhood. The purpose of this review is to investigate the predictors of media emotion regulation and its consequences on children's socioemotional development. As predictors of media emotion regulation, parental education level, parental media use, and the child’s temperament were examined. It was observed that parents with low levels of education and higher personal media use more frequently offer their children media emotion regulation than other parents. The relationships between children’s temperamental domains of negative affect and extraversion/surgency and media emotion regulation have been shown as positive, while the relationship between effortful control and media emotion regulation has been displayed as negative. As for the consequences of media emotion regulation on children's socioemotional development, children’s problematic media use, emotional knowledge, and empathy were examined. The relationship between media emotion regulation and problematic media use was displayed as positive; children who frequently experienced media emotion regulation had increased problematic media use. Also, it was shown that media emotion regulation has a negative role in children's emotional knowledge. As children's experience with media emotion regulation increased, their emotional knowledge decreased. Lastly, in the relationship between media emotion regulation and empathy, both positive and negative findings were observed and variables that may influence this relationship were discussed. This study contributes significantly to understanding the conditions under which children more frequently experience media emotion regulation and the role of this experience on children's socioemotional developmentAs the consequences of media emotion regulation on children’s socio-emotional development, children's problematic media use, emotional knowledge, and empathy have been explored. There is a positive relationship between media emotion regulation and problematic media use. As media emotion regulation increases, children's emotional knowledge decreases. Finally, in the relationship between media emotion regulation and empathy, both positive and negative outcomes have been found, suggesting that media content and how children perceive media emotion regulation may influence this relationship. This study offers a significant contribution by exploring the conditions under which children more frequently experience media emotion regulation and its role in children's socio-emotional development.

Keywords

media, emotion regulation, early childhood, parent

Medya Aracılığıyla Duygu Düzenlemenin Yordayıcıları ve Çocuğun Sosyoduygusal Gelişimi Açısından Sonuçları

Abstract

Medya aracılığıyla duygu düzenleme, ebeveynlerin erken çocukluk dönemindeki çocuklarının duygularını düzenlemesinde medya kullanması olarak tanımlanmıştır. Bu derlemenin amacı, medya aracılığıyla duygu düzenlemenin yordayıcılarını ve çocukların sosyoduygusal gelişimiyle ilgili olan sonuçlarını incelemektir. Medya aracılığıyla duygu düzenlemenin yordayıcıları olarak ebeveyn eğitim seviyesi, ebeveyn medya kullanımı ve çocuğun mizacı incelenmiştir. Düşük eğitim seviyesine sahip ve kişisel medya kullanımı yüksek olan ebeveynlerin, diğer ebeveynlere kıyasla medya aracılığıyla duygu düzenlemeye daha sık başvurduğu görülmüştür. Çocukların olumsuz duygulanım veya dışadönüklük/coşkunluk mizacı ile medya aracılığıyla duygu düzenleme arasında olumlu; çabalı kontrol ile medya aracılığıyla duygu düzenleme arasında olumsuz bir ilişki görülmüştür. Medya aracılığıyla duygu düzenlemenin çocukların sosyoduygusal gelişimi üzerindeki sonuçları olarak çocuğun problemli medya kullanımı, duygusal bilgi ile empatisi incelenmiştir. Medya aracılığıyla duygu düzenleme ve problemli medya kullanımı arasında olumlu bir ilişki olduğu görülmüştür; medya aracılığıyla duygu düzenlemeyi sıklıkla deneyimleyen çocukların problemli medya kullanımı artmaktadır. Ayrıca medya aracılığıyla duygu düzenlemenin çocukların duygusal bilgisinde olumsuz bir rolü olduğu belirlenmiştir. Çocukların medya aracılığıyla duygu düzenleme deneyimi arttıkça duygusal bilgisi azalmaktadır. Son olarak, medya aracılığıyla duygu düzenleme ile empati arasındaki ilişkide hem olumlu hem olumsuz sonuçlar gözlemlenmiş ve bu ilişkiyi etkileyebilecek değişkenler tartışılmıştır. Bu çalışma, çocukların medya aracılığıyla duygu düzenlemeyi hangi koşullarda daha sık deneyimlediğini ve bu deneyimin çocukların sosyoduygusal gelişimindeki rolünü anlamak açısından önemli bir katkı sunmaktadır.

Keywords

medya, duygu düzenleme, erken çocukluk, ebeveyn

References

• Baum A, Garofalo J, Yali A (1999) Socioeconomic status and chronic stress: does stress account for SES effects on health? Ann N Y Acad Sci, 896:131-144.
• Belsky J (1984) The determinants of parenting: a process model. Child Dev, 55:83-96.
• Berdan LE, Keane SP, Calkins SD (2008) Temperament and externalizing behavior: social preference and perceived acceptance as protective factors. Dev Psychol, 44:957-968.
• Blum-Ross A, Livingstone S (2016) Families and Screen Time: Current Advice and Emerging Research- Media Policy Brief 17. London, London School of Economics and Political Science.
• Bohnert M, Gracia P (2021) Emerging digital generations? impacts of child digital use on mental and socioemotional well-being across two cohorts in Ireland, 2007–2018. Child Indic Res, 14:629-659.
• Bornstein MH, Britto PR, Nonoyama-Tarumi Y, Ota Y, Petrovic O et al. (2012) Child development in developing countries: introduction and methods. Child Dev, 83:16–31.
• Canaslan B, Sungur S (2022) Preschool children’s digital media usage and self- regulation skill. Turkish Journal of Education, 22:126-142.
• Christakis DA (2014) Interactive media use at younger than the age of 2 years: time to rethink the american academy of pediatrics guideline? JAMA Pediatr, 168:399-400.
• Council on Communications and Media (2016) Media and young minds. Pediatrics, 38:e20162591.
• Coyne SM, Radesky J, Collier KM, Gentile DA, Linder JR, Nathanson AI et al. (2017) Parenting and digital media. Pediatrics, 140:S112-S116.
• Coyne SM, Reschke PJ, Stockdale L, Gale M, Shawcroft J, Gentile DA et al. (2023) Silencing creaming with screens: the longitudinal relationship between media emotion regulation processes and children’s emotional reactivity, emotional knowledge, and empathy. Emotion, 23:2194-2204.
• Coyne SM, Rogers A, Shawcroft J, Reschke P, Barr R, Davis EJ et al. (2022) Meltdowns and media: moment-to-moment fluctuations in young children’s media use transitions and the role of children’s mood states. Comput Human Behav, 136:107360.
• Coyne SM, Shawcroft J, Gale M, Gentile DA, Etherington JT, Holmgren H et al. (2021) Tantrums, toddlers and technology: temperament, media emotion regulation, and problematic media use in early childhood. Comput Human Behav, 120:106762.
• de Montigny F, Lacharite C (2005) Perceived parental efficacy: concept analysis. J Adv Nurs, 49:387-396.
• Denham SA (2019) Emotional competence during childhood and adolescence. In Handbook of Emotional Development (Eds V LoBue, K Pérez-Edgar, KA Buss):493-541. Cham, Springer.
• Denham SA, Bassett HH, Wyatt T (2014) The socialization of emotional competence. In Handbook of Socialization: Theory and Research, 2nd ed. (Eds JE Grusec, PD Hastings):590-613. New York, Guilford Press.
• Denham SA, Blair KA, DeMulder E, Levitas J, Sawyer K, Auerbach-Major S et al. (2003) Preschool emotional competence: pathway to social competence? Child Dev, 74:238-256.
• Denham SA, Couchoud EA (1990) Young preschoolers’ understanding of emotions. Child Study Journal, 20:171-192.
• Domoff SE, Borgen AL, Radesky JS (2020) Interactional theory of childhood problematic media use. Hum Behav Emerg Technol, 2:343-353.
• Domoff SE, Harrison K, Gearhardt AN, Gentile DA, Lumeng JC, Miller AL (2019) Development and validation of the problematic media use measure: a parent report measure of screen media “addiction” in children. Psychol Pop Media Cult, 8:2-11.
• Drummond J, Paul EF, Waugh WE, Hammond SI, Brownell CA (2014) Here, there and everywhere: emotion and mental state talk in different social contexts predicts empathic helping in toddlers. Front Psychol, 5:361.
• Duckworth AL, Steinberg L (2015) Unpacking self‐control. Child Dev Perspect, 9:32-37.
• Dunn J (1994) Understanding others and the social world: current issues in developmental research and their relation to preschool experiences and practice. J App Dev Psychol, 15:571-583.
• Eales L, Gillespie S, Alstat RA, Ferguson GM, Carlson SM (2021) Children’s screen and problematic media use in the United States before and during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Child Dev, 92:e866-e882.
• Eggum ND, Eisenberg N, Kao K, Spinrad TL, Bolnick R, Hofer C et al. (2011) Emotion understanding, theory of mind, and prosocial orientation: relations over time in early childhood. J Posit Psychol, 6:4-16.
• Eisenberg N (2005) The development of empathy-related responding. In Moral Motivation through Life Span (Eds G Carlo, CP Edwards):73-118. Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press.
• Eisenberg N, Cumberland A, Spinrad TL (1998) Parental socialization of emotion. Psychol Inq, 9:241-273.
• Eisenberg N, Hofer C, Vaughan J (2007) Effortful control and its socio-emotional consequences. In: Handbook of Emotion Regulation (Eds J Gross): 287-306. New York, Guilford Press.
• Eisenberg N, Smith CL, Spinrad TL (2011) Effortful control: relations with emotion regulation, adjustment, and socialization in childhood. In Handbook of Self-Regulation: Research, Theory, and Applications, 2nd ed (Eds KD Vohs, RF Baumeister):263-283. New York, Guilford Press.
• Fabes RA, Eisenberg N, Karbon M, Bernzweig J, Lee Speer A, Carlo G (1994) Socialization of children’s vicarious emotional responding and prosocial behavior: relations with mothers’ perceptions of children’s emotional reactivity. Dev Psychol, 30:44-55.
• Fabes RA, Poulin RE, Eisenberg N, Madden-Derdich DA (2002) The coping with children's negative emotions scale (CCNES): psychometric properties and relations with children's emotional competence. Marriage Family Rev, 34: 285-310.
• Fox NA, Henderson HA, Rubin KH, Calkins SD, Schmidt LA (2001) Continuity and discontinuity of behavior inhibition and exuberance: psychophysiological and behavioral influences across the first four years of life. Child Dev, 72:1-21.
• Gentile D (2009) Pathological video-game use among youth ages 8 to 18: a national study. Psychol Sci, 20:594-602.
• Gentile DA, Reimer RA, Nathanson AI, Walsh DA, Eisenmann JC (2014) Protective effects of parental monitoring of children’s media use: a prospective study. JAMA Pediatr, 168:479-484.
• Gentzler AL, Contreras‐Grau JM, Kerns KA, Weimer BL (2005) Parent– child emotional communication and children's coping in middle childhood. Soc Dev, 14:591-612.
• Goldsmith HH, Buss AH, Plomin R, Rothbart MK, Thomas A, Chess S (1987) What is temperament? Four approaches. Child Dev, 58:505–529.
• Gordon-Hacker A, Gueron-Sela N (2020) Maternal use of media to regulate child distress: a double-edged sword? Longitudinal links to toddlers’ negative emotionality. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw, 23:400-405.
• Gottman JM, DeClaire J (1997) The Heart of Parenting: How to Raise an Emotionally Intelligent Child. London, Bloomsbury.
• Gottman JM, Katz LF, Hooven C (1996) Parental meta-emotion philosophy and the emotional life of families: theoretical models and preliminary data. J Fam Psychol, 10:243–268.
• Gottman JM, Katz LF, Hooven C (1997) Meta-Emotion: How Families Communicate Emotionally. Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Gou H, Perceval G (2022) Does digital media use increase risk of social-emotional delay for Chinese preschoolers? J Child Media, 17:1-16.
• Hauser RM, Warren JR (1997) 4. Socioeconomic indexes for occupations: a review, update, and critique. Sociol Methodol, 27:177–298.
• Heyman GD, Hsu AS, Fu G, Lee K (2013) Instrumental lying by parents in the US and China. Int J Psychol 48:1176–1184.
• Hill-Soderlund AL, Braungart-Rieker JM (2008) Early individual differences in temperamental reactivity and regulation: implications for effortful control in early childhood. Infant Behav Dev, 31:386-397.
• Hiniker A, Suh H, Cao S, Kientz JA (2016) Screen time tantrums: how families manage screen media experiences for toddlers and preschoolers. CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 7-12 Mayıs 2016, New York; USA. Proceedings,pp:648-660.
• Hu BY, Johnson GK, Wu H (2018) Screen time relationship of Chinese parents and their children. Child Youth Serv Rev, 94:659-669.
• Kabali HK, Irigoyen MM, Nunez-Davis R, Budacki JG, Mohanty SH, Leister KP et al. (2015) Exposure and use of mobile media devices by young children. Pediatrics, 136:1044-1050.
• Kim NH, Lee EJ, Kwak SY, Park MR (2013) A phenomenological study on the experiences of parenting burden of working mother with young children in Korea. Korean J Women Health Nurs, 19:188-200.
• Klein MR, Moran L, Cortes R, Zalewski M, Ruberry EJ, Lengua LJ (2018) Temperament, mothers' reactions to children's emotional experiences, and emotion understanding predicting adjustment in preschool children. Soc Dev, 27:351-365.
• Koç-Arık G (2023) Çocuklarda dijital teknoloji kullanımının sosyal beceriler ve duygu düzenlemeye etkisi. In Değişen Dünyanın Gelişen Çocukları- Dijital Teknolojinin Çocuk Gelişimi Üzerindeki Etkileri (Eds. F Karaman, A Özdeş):211-236. Ankara, Nobel Akademik.
• Koivula M, Huttunen K, Mustola M, Lipponen S, Laakso ML (2017) The emotion detectives game: supporting the social-emotional competence of young children. In Serious Games and Edutainment Applications (Eds M Ma, A Oikonomou):29-53. London, Springer International.
• Levine LE, Waite BM, Bowman LL, Kachinsky K (2019) Mobile media use by infants and toddlers. Comput Human Behav, 94:92-99.
• Lin HP, Chen KL, Chou W, Yuan KS, Yen SY, Chen YS, Chow JC (2020) Prolonged touch screen device usage is associated with emotional and behavioral problems, but not language delay, in toddlers. Infant Behav Dev, 58:101424.
• Liu M, Wu L, Yao S (2015) Dose–response association of screen time-based sedentary behaviour in children and adolescents and depression: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Br J Sports Med, 50:1252-1258.
• Liu W, Wu X, Huang K, Yan S, Ma L, Cao H et al. (2021) Early childhood screen time as a predictor of emotional and behavioral problems in children at 4 years: a birth cohort study in China. Environ Health and Prev Med, 26:3.
• Lovejoy MC, Graczyk PA, O'Hare E, Neuman G (2000) Maternal depression and parenting behavior: a meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev, 20:561–592.
• Lucas-Molina B, Quintanilla L, Sarmento-Henrique R, Martin-Babarro J, Giménez-Dasí M (2020) The relationship between emotion regulation and emotion knowledge in preschoolers: a longitudinal study. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 17:5726.
• Lunkenheimer E, Dunning ED, Diercks CM, Kelm MR (2023) Parental regulation of parent and child screen-based device use. Int J Behav Dev, 47:410-422.
• Madigan S, Racine N, Tough S (2020) Prevalence of preschoolers meeting vs exceeding screen time guidelines. JAMA Pediatr, 174:93-95.
• Martin GB, Clark RD (1982) Distress crying in neonates: species and peer specificity. Dev Psychol, 18:3-9.
• McCloskey M, Johnson SL, Benz C, Thompson DA, Chamberlin B, Clark L et al. (2018) Parent perceptions of mobile device use among preschool-aged children in rural head start centers. J Nutr Educ Behav, 50:83-89.
• McDaniel BT (2019) Parent distraction with phones, reasons for use, and impacts on parenting and child outcomes: a review of the emerging research. Hum Behav Emerg Technol, 1:72-80.
• McDaniel BT, Radesky JS (2017) “I can't stop thinking about my phone”: a daily diary study of parents distracted by technology and child behavior difficulties. Society for Research on Child Development Biennial Meeting, 6-8 Nisan 2017 Austin, USA.
• McDaniel BT, Radesky JS (2018) Technoference: longitudinal associations between parent technology use, parenting stress, and child behavior problems. Pediatric Res, 84:210-218.
• National Center for Education Statistics (2023) Enrollment rates of young children: The condition of education. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cfa (Accessed09.12.2023).
• Nikken P (2019) Parents’ instrumental use of media in childrearing: relationships with confidence in parenting, and health and conduct problems in children. J Child Fam Stud, 28:531-546.
• Nikken P, Jansz J (2006) Parental mediation of children’s videogame playing: a comparison of the reports by parents and children. Learn Media Technol, 31:181-202.
• Nikken P, Schols M (2015) How and why parents guide the media use of young children. J Child Fam Stud, 24:3423-3435.
• Olafsson K, Livingstone S, Haddon L (2014) Children’s Use of Online Technologies in Europe: A Review of the European Evidence Base. LSE, London, EU Kids Online.
• Padilla-Walker LM, Coyne SM, Fraser AM (2012) Getting a high-speed family connection: associations between family media use and family connection. Fam Relat, 61:426-440.
• Paulussen-Hoogeboom MC, Stams GJ, Hermanns JMA, Peetsma TTD (2007) Child negative emotionality and parenting from infancy to preschool: a meta-analytic review. Dev Psychol, 43:438-453.
• Plante CN, Gentile DA, Groves CL, Modlin A, Blanco-Herrera J (2019) Video games as coping mechanisms in the etiology of video game addiction. Psychol Pop Media Cult, 8:385-394.
• Radesky JS, Christakis DA (2016) Increased screen time. Pediatr Clin North Am, 63:827-839.
• Radesky JS, Eisenberg S, Kistin CJ, Gross J, Block G, Zuckerman B et al. (2016a) Overstimulated consumers or next-generation learners? Parent tensions about child mobile technology use. Ann Fam Med, 14:503-508.
• Radesky JS, Kistin C, Eisenberg S, Gross J, Block G, Zuckerman B et al. (2016b) Parent perspectives on their mobile technology use: the excitement and exhaustion of parenting while connected. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 37:694–701.
• Radesky JS, Peacock-Chambers E, Zuckerman B, Silverstein M (2016c) Use of mobile technology to calm upset children: associations with social-emotional development. JAMA Pediatr, 170:397-399.
• Radesky JS, Schumacher J, Zuckerman B (2014a) Mobile and interactive media use by young children: the good, the bad, and the unknown. Pediatrics, 135:1-3.
• Radesky JS, Silverstein M, Zuckerman B, Christakis DA (2014b) Infant self-regulation and early childhood media exposure. Pediatrics, 133:e1172-e1178.
• Radesky JS, Weeks HM, Ball R, Schaller A, Yeo S, Durnez, J et al. (2020) Young children’s use of smartphones and tablets. Pediatrics, 146:e20193518.
• Rasmussen EE, Shafer A, Colwell MJ, White S, Punyanunt-Carter N, Densley RL et al. (2016) Relation between active mediation, exposure to daniel tiger’s neighborhood, and US preschoolers’ social and emotional development. J Children Media, 10:443-461.
• Rideout V, Robb M (2020) The Common-Sense Census: Media Use By Kids Age Zero To Eight, 2020. San Fransisco, CA, Common Sense Media.
• Root AK, Rubin KH (2010) Gender and parents’ reactions to children’s emotion during the preschool years. New Dir Child Adolesc Dev, 128:51-64.
• Rothbart M, Bates J (2006) Temperament. In Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 3: Social, Emotional, And Personality Development, 6th ed. (Eds. N Eisenberg, W Damon, LM Richard):99-166. Hoboken, NJ, Wiley.
• Rothbart MK, Ahadi SA, Hershey KL, Fisher P (2001) Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: the children’s behavior questionnaire. Child Dev, 72:1394-1408.
• Rothbart MK, Derryberry D, Hershey K (2000) Stability of temperament in childhood: laboratory infant assessment to parent report at seven years. In Temperament and Personality Development across the Life Span (Eds VJ Molfese, DL Molfese):85-119. London, UK, Psychology Press.
• Rothbart MK, Putnam SP (2002) Temperament and socialization. In Paths to Successful Development: Personality in The Life Course (Eds L Pulkkinen, A Caspi):19-45. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Ruba AL, Pollak SD (2020) The development of emotion reasoning in infancy and early childhood. Annu Rev Dev Psychol, 2:503-531.
• Rutherford HJ, Wallace NS, Laurent HK, Mayes LC (2015) Emotion regulation in parenthood. Dev Rev, 36:1-14.
• Schuhmacher N, Köster M, Kärtner J (2019) Modeling prosocial behavior increases helping in 16‐month‐olds. Child Dev, 90:1789-1801.
• Schultz D, Izard CE, Ackerman BP, Youngstrom EA (2001) Emotion knowledge in economically disadvantaged children: self-regulatory antecedents and relations to social difficulties and withdrawal. Dev Psychopathol, 13:53-67.
• Seja AL, Russ SW (1999) Children’s fantasy play and emotional understanding. J Clin Child Psychol, 28:269–277.
• Seo H (2017) Emotion matters: what happens between young children and parents in a touchscreen world. Int J Commun, 11:561-580.
• Simonds J (2006) The role of reward sensitivity and response execution in childhood extraversion (Doctoral thesis). Oregon, Oregon University.
• Singer T (2006) The neuronal basis and ontogeny of empathy and mind reading: review of literature and implications for future research. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 30:855-863.
• Spinrad TL, Eisenberg N, Cumberland A, Fabes RA, Valiente C, Shepard SA et al. (2006) Relation of emotion-related regulation to children's social competence: a longitudinal study. Emotion, 6:498-510.
• Spinrad TL, Gal DE (2018) Fostering prosocial behavior and empathy in young children. Curr Opin Psychol, 20:40-44.
• Stifter CA, Spinrad TL (2002) The effect of excessive crying on the development of emotion regulation. Infancy, 3:133-152.
• Suryani R, Pranoto S, Astuti B (2020) The effectiveness of storytelling and roleplaying media in enhancing early childhood empathy. Journal of Primary Education, 9:546-553.
• Sweetser P, Johnson D, Ozdowska A, Wyeth P (2012) Active versus passive screen time for young children. Australas J Early Child, 37:94- 98.
• Taraban L, Shaw DS (2018) Parenting in context: revisiting Belsky’s classic process of parenting model in early childhood. Dev Rev, 48:55-81.
• Thompson RA, Newton EK (2013) Baby altruists? examining the complexity of prosocial motivation in young children. Infancy, 18:120–133.
• Tremblay MS, LeBlanc AG, Carson V, Choquette L, Connor Gorber S, Dillman C et al. (2012) Canadian sedentary behaviour guidelines for the early years (aged 0–4 years). Appl Physiol Nutr Metab, 37:370-380.
• TUIK (2022) İstatistiklerle Çocuk, 2021. Ankara, Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu
• Twenge JM, Campbell WK (2018) Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: evidence from a population-based study. Prev Med Rep, 12:271-283.
• Uzundağ BA, Oranç C, Keşşafoğlu D, Altundal MN (2022) How children in Turkey use digital media: factors related to children, parents, and their home environment. In Childhood in Turkey: Educational, Sociological, and Psychological Perspectives (Eds HH Şen, H Selin):137-149. Cham,Springer g.
• Vohs KD, Baumeister RF (2004) Understanding self-regulation: an introduction. In Handbook of Self-Regulation: Research, Theory, and Applications (Eds RF Baumeister, KD Vohs):1-9. New York, Guilford Press.
• Wartella E, Rideout V, Lauricella AR, Connell S (2013) Parenting In the Age of Digital Technology: A National Surbvey. Evanton, IL, Northwestern University.
• Wolfers LN (2021) Parental mobile media use for coping with stress: a focus groups study. Hum Behav Emerg Technol, 3:304-315.
• Wong TKY, Konishi C, Kong X (2021) Parenting and prosocial behaviors: a meta‐analysis. Soc Dev, 30:343-373.
• Woodard K, Zettersten M, Pollak SD (2022) The representation of emotion knowledge across development. Child Dev, 93:e237-e250.
• Wu Z, Yu J, Xu C (2023) Does screen exposure necessarily relate to behavior problems? the buffering roles of emotion regulation and caregiver companionship. Early Child Res Q, 63:424-433.
• Yeşilay (2017) Yeşilay’dan ekran karşısında geçirilen süreler için uyarı. https://www.yesilay.org.tr/tr/haberler/yesilaydan-ekran-karsisinda-gecirilen-sureler-icin-uyari (Accessed 20.01.2023).
• Zahn-Waxler C, Radke-Yarrow M, Wagner E, Chapman M (1992) Development of concern for others. Dev Psychol, 28:126-136.
• Zimmer-Gembeck MJ, Rudolph J, Kerin J, Bohadana-Brown G (2022) Parent emotional regulation: a meta-analytic review of its association with parenting and child adjustment. Int J Behav Dev, 46:63-82.