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The Idea of Geographical Space in Ancient Greek-Roman Thought and the Institutionalisation of Geography

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 23 Sayı: Din ve Coğrafya, 27 - 53, 30.04.2024
https://doi.org/10.14395/hid.1412876

Öz

A certain conception of the “earth” (gē) emerges from the Homeric verses, the first work surviving in written form in ancient Greek literature. Therefore, from the very beginning, Greek people accepted the idea of a place where they lived and shared with the gods as a requirement of the concept of nature they adopted. Both the “Catalogue of Ships” in the Iliad and the travels in the Odyssey describe the borders of the Mediterranean, presenting views of this notion intertwined with myth. Early approaches in which myth and reality are intertwined within the framework of the definition of space were gradually replaced by solid perspectives based on observable data. The definition and framing by a calculating mind of the earth by “specialized knowledge” (epistēmē), which was thought to be purely uncanny in the early period, takes place gradually, due to the variety of disciplines of Ancient Greek acquired knowledge – mathematics, geometry, astronomy, geography, and history, etc. – in close contact with one another. The accumulation of other efforts, especially in the Greek Classical Age, is embodied in work that gained momentum under the auspices of the Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty and focused on the problem of defining the “inhabited [earth]” (oikoumenē). The work of Eratosthenes, a polymath who lived in the 3rd century BC, plays an important role in the formation of certain notions of geography, especially its name (geōgraphia). Although his work has survived mostly in fragments, Eratosthenes’ systematizations, such as the “seven climates” (hepta klimata), which subsequently affected the scientific world profoundly, may also be included within this framework. While Eratosthenes marks the initial emergence of geography as an established science, the works by the 2nd century AD scholar Ptolemy centuries later, who lived in the Roman Imperial Period, constitutes the complementary endpoint of the institutionalization of geography, both by virtue of his solid criticisms of Eratosthenes and the establishment of certain systematic principles. A precise description of the inhabited earth accords with an astronomical sky made precise by mathematical calculation also. The landscape presented by means of this process makes understandable certain details, such as the idea of hodological space in pictorial cartography, a result of the human desire to dominate the earth, as well as the role that certain notions play in the institutionalization of geography. Thanks to the precise relationship established between the earth and the cosmos that surrounds him, man’s desire for this domination also gains altitude over time. Institutionalization, at first glance, brings with it independence, and over time, independence brings with it separation from companions such as astrology/astronomy. Therefore, the institutionalization of geography needs to be evaluated within the framework of certain conceptualizations and their relations with neighboring sciences, and the seemingly isolated geography needs to be reconsidered together with the metaphysical thinking it is associated with.
The details of this institutionalization process reveal the main tendencies that shaped the science of geography. The determination of the trends in question is largely the tendency of political will to define and define the boundaries of space, that is, the inhabited earth, and the cosmos in general, from a geographical perspective. The unique tendencies of the early period of the Islamic civilization, which was closely influenced by Greco-Roman geography, are related to these defining and boundary-setting purposes. As a result, the institutionalization of geography as a science in the Greco-Roman tradition and the consequences of the legacy left by its independent guise can be observed in some attitudes in the first centuries when Islam spread in a very early period. Although a full understanding of the connection of these attitudes with the Greco-Roman tradition requires a detailed analysis, revealing some clear presumptions will expand the research horizon on this subject. In this article, it will be discussed how geography emerged as an established and in certain respects independent science in the Greco-Roman tradition, as well as from what perspective and thanks to which presumptions Early Islamic scientists can be considered as heirs of the Greco-Roman tradition. A closer examination of this heir-decedent relationship shows that philologically based textual transmission is only one of how inheritance is transmitted. Therefore, one branch of the idea of institutionalized geographical space continued its own process of independence in the hands of the early Islamic geographers. From this perspective, the article also aims to suggest which aspects of the detachment should be examined in detail.

Kaynakça

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Eski Yunan-Roma Düşüncesinde Coğrafi Mekân Fikri, Coğrafyanın Müessesleşmesi ve İslâm Coğrafyacılığına Etkisi

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 23 Sayı: Din ve Coğrafya, 27 - 53, 30.04.2024
https://doi.org/10.14395/hid.1412876

Öz

Eski Yunan edebiyatından yazılı bir formda günümüze kalan ilk eser olarak Homerosçu mısralardan itibaren belirli bir “yeryüzü” (gē) tasavvuru karşımıza çıkar. Dolayısıyla Yunan insanı, yaşamını sürdürdüğü ve benimsediği doğa mefhumunun bir gereği olarak tanrılarla paylaştığı bir mekân fikrini başından itibaren kabul eder. Gerek Ilias’taki “Gemiler Kataloğu” gerek Odysseia’daki Akdeniz’in sınırlarını hikâye eden seyahatler bu fikrin mitlerle iç içe geçmiş görünümlerini sunar. Mekânın tanımlanışı çerçevesinde mitle gerçeğin iç içe geçtiği erken yaklaşımlar zamanla yerlerini gözlemlenebilir verilere dayanan muhkem bakış açılarına bırakır. Erken dönemde bütünüyle tekinsiz olduğu düşünülen yeryüzünün hesaplayıcı bir akılla tanımlanması ve “uzman bilgisi” (epistēmē) temelinde bir çerçeveye oturtulması Eski Yunan müktesebatının –matematik, geometri, astronomi, coğrafya ve tarih gibi– birbiriyle yakın temastaki farklı disiplinleri sayesinde peyderpey gerçekleşir. Özellikle Yunan Klasik Çağı’ndaki diğer çabaların sağladığı birikim, Hellenistik Ptolemaios hanedanının himayesinde ivme kazanan çalışmalarla tam anlamıyla “meskûn [yeryüzü]”nün (oikoumenē) tanımlanması problemine odaklanarak ete kemiğe bürünür. MÖ 3. yüzyılda yaşamış bir hezarfen olan Eratosthenes’in çalışmaları, bu bilimin kendi adı (geōgraphia) başta olmak üzere coğrafyanın belli başlı mefhumlaştırmalarının oluşmasında önemli bir rol oynar. Eseri büyük ölçüde fragmanlar halinde günümüze ulaşmış olmasına rağmen, Eratosthenes’in “yedi iklim” (hepta klimata) gibi kendisinden sonraki bilim dünyasını derinden etkileyen sistemleştirmeleri de bu çerçevede sayılabilir. Eratosthenes, coğrafyanın müesses bir bilim olarak ortaya çıkmasının bir başlangıcıyken, asırlar sonraki bir halefi olarak Roma İmparatorluk Çağı’nda yaşayan, MS 2. yüzyıl âlimi Ptolemaios’un eserleri, gerek Eratosthenes’e yönelik sağlam eleştirileri gerek belli başlı sistematik ilkeleri yerli yerine oturtmasıyla müessesleşmenin tamamlayıcı son noktasını oluşturur. Meskûn yeryüzünün dakik bir tanımlaması aynı zamanda matematik hesabın kesinleştirdiği bir astronomik gökyüzüyle birlikte anlam kazanır. Bu sürecin sunduğu manzara belirli mefhumlaştırmaların coğrafyanın müessesleşmesinde oynadığı rol kadar, insanın yeryüzüne hâkim olma arzusunun neticesi olan kartografik resmin hodolojik mekân fikri gibi kimi ayrıntılarını da anlaşılır kılıyor. Yeryüzüyle kendisini kuşatan kosmos arasında kurulan dakik ilişki sayesinde insanın arzuladığı bu hâkimiyet de zamanla irtifa kazanıyor. Müessesleşme ilk bakışta bir müstakilleşmeyi, müstakilleşme de zaman içinde astroloji/astronomi gibi yoldaşlardan ayrılışı beraberinde getiriyor. Dolayısıyla coğrafyanın müessesleşmesinin belli başlı mefhumlaştırmalar ve bunların komşu bilimlerle ilişkileri çerçevesinde değerlendirilmesinin, müsatakilleşmiş gibi görünen coğrafyanın ilişkili olduğu metafizik düşünmeyle birlikte yeniden ele alınması gerekiyor.
Bu müessesleşme sürecinin ayrıntıları coğrafya biliminin hangi ana yönelimlerle biçimlendiğini ortaya seriyor. Mevzu bahis yönelimlerin belirleyicisi büyük ölçüde siyasî irade tarafından mekânın, yani özelde meskûn yeryüzünün genelde bir bütün olarak kosmos’un coğrafi bir bakış açısıyla tanımlanması ve sınırlarının belirlenmesi eğilimidir. Yunan-Roma coğrafyacılığının yakından etkilediği İslâm medeniyetinin erken dönemindeki kendine has yönelimleri, bu tanımlayıcı ve sınırları belirleyici maksatlarla ilişkilidir. Sonuçta coğrafyanın Yunan-Roma geleneğinde bir bilim olarak müessesleşmesi ve müstakil kisvesinin bıraktığı mirasın neticeleri, oldukça erken bir dönemde İslâm’ın yayıldığı ilk yüzyıllardaki kimi tutumlarda gözlemlenebilir. Her ne kadar bu tutumların Yunan-Roma geleneğiyle irtibatının tam olarak anlaşılması tafsilatlı bir tahlili gerektirse de, bazı belirgin karinelerin ortaya çıkarılması bu konudaki araştırma ufkunu genişletecektir. Bu makalede, Yunan-Roma geleneğinde müesses ve belirli açılardan müstakilleşmiş bir bilim olarak coğrafyanın nasıl ortaya çıktığı kadar, Erken İslâm bilim insanlarının nasıl bir perspektifle ve hangi karineler sayesinde Yunan-Roma geleneğinin mirasçıları olarak değerlendirilebileceği ele alınacak. Bu vâris-mûris ilişkisinin daha yakından incelenmesi, filolojik temelli metin aktarımının mirasın intikalindeki vasıtalardan sadece bir tanesi olduğunu gösterir. Dolayısıyla müessesleşen coğrafi mekân fikrinin bir kolu İslâm’ın ilk dönem coğrafyacılarının elinde kendine has bir müstakilleşme sürecini sürdürmüştür. Makale bu bakış açısıyla, aynı zamanda, bahsedilen müstakilleşmenin öncelikli olarak hangi yönlerden enine boyuna incelenmesi gerektiğini önerme gayesini taşımaktadır.

Kaynakça

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  • Aujac, G. “De quelques representations de l’espace geographique dans l’Antiquite”. Bulletin du Comite des Travaux Historiques et Scientifiques: Section de Geographie 84 (1979), 27-38. https://doi.org/10.3406/palla.1981.1117
  • Aujac, G. “The ‘Revolution’ of Ptolemy”. ed. S. Bianchetti vd. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2016.
  • Aujac, G. Ératosthène de Cyrène, le Pionnier de la Géographie. Sa Mesure de la Circonférence Terrestre. Paris: Éditions du Comité des Travaux Historiques et Scientifiques, 2001.
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  • Ballabriga, A. Les Fictions d’Homère: l’invention Mythologique et Cosmographique dans l’Odyssée. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1998.
  • Berggren, J. L. “Al-Bīrūnī on Plane Maps of the Sphere”. Journal for the History of Arabic Science 6 (1982), 47-96.
  • Bianchetti, S. Pitea Di Massalia, L’oceano, Introduzione, Testo, Traduzione E Commento. Pisa, Roma: Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali, 1998.
  • Cataudella, M. R. “Some Scientific Approaches: Eudoxus of Cnidus and Dicaearchus of Messene”. ed. S. Bianchetti vd. 115-131. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2016.
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  • Cleomedes, Caelestia. Ed. B. B. Todd. Stuttgart: Teubner, 1990.
  • Cole, S. G. “‘I Know the Number of the Sand and the Measure of the Sea’: Geography and Difference in the Early Greek World.” ed. K. A. Raaflaub - R. J. A. Talbert. 197-214. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
  • Collinder, P. “Dicaearchus and the ‘Lysimachian’ Measurement of the Earth”. Sudhoffs Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften 48/1 (1964), 63-78.
  • Cornelius Tacitus, Libri qui Supersunt. ed. H. Heubner vd. Stuttgart: Teubner, 1987.
  • Cosmas Indicopleustes. Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes. ed. E. O. Winstedt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1909.
  • Cotesta, V. The Heavens and the Earth Graeco-Roman, Ancient Chinese, and Mediaeval Islamic Images of the World. çev. K Mc Carthy. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2021.
  • Dicks, D. R. “Strabo and the ΚΛΙΜΑΤΑ”. Classical Quarterly 50 (1956), 243-247.
  • Dicks, D. R. “The ΚΛΙΜΑΤΑ in Greek Geography”. Classical Quarterly 49 (1955), 248-255.
  • Dicks, D. R. The Geographical Fragments of Hipparchus. London: Athlone, 1960.
  • Dilke, O. A. W. “The Culmination of Greek Cartography in Ptolemy”. The History of Cartography. ed. J. B. Harley – D. Woodward. 1/177-200. Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987.
  • Diller, A. “Agathemerus, Sketch of Geography”. Greek, Roman, And Byzantine Studies 6 (1975), 59-76.
  • Diogenes Laertius. Diogenes Laertius. ed. H. S. Long. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964.
  • Ducène, J. C. “Ptolemy’s Geography in the Arabic-Islamic Context”. çev. A. Hiatt. Cartography between Christian Europe and the Arabic-Islamic World, 1100-1500. ed. A. Hiatt. 74-90. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2021.
  • Edwards, A. T. “Homer’s Ethical Geography: Country and City in the Odyssey”. Transactions of the American Philological Association 123 (1993), 27-78.
  • Edwards, A. T. “The Ethical Geography of Hesiod’s Works and Days”. Geography, Topography, Landscape: Configurations of Space in Greek and Roman Epic. ed. M. Skempis – I. Ziogas. 95-136. Berlin, Boston: Walter de Gruyter, 2014.
  • Edwards, A. T. Hesiod’s Ascra. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2004.
  • Euclides. Opera Omnia, Vol. I-IV. ed. J. L. Heiberg - H. Menge. Leipzig: Teubner, 1883.
  • Gaius Plinius Secundus. Naturalis Historiae Libri. ed. L. Jan - K. Mayhoff. Leipzig: Teubner, 1892.
  • Géminos, Introduction aux Phénomènes. Ed. G. Aujac. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1975.
  • Geus, K. “Measuring the Earth and the Oikoumene: Zones, Meridians, Sphragides and Some Other Geographical Terms Used by Eratosthenes of Cyrene”. Space in the Roman World: Its Perception and Presentation. ed. R. Talbert – K. Brodersen. 11-26. Münster: Lit Verlag, 2004.
  • Geus, K. “Progress in the Sciences: Astronomy and Hipparchus”. Brill’s Companion to Ancient Geography: The Inhabited World in Greek and Roman Tradition. ed. S. Bianchetti vd. 150-160. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2016.
  • Hardie, P. R. “Imago Mundi: Cosmological and Ideological Aspects of the Shield of Achilles”. Journal of Hellenic Studies 105 (1985), 11-31.
  • Hartog, F. Memories of Odysseus: Frontier Tales from Ancient Greece. çev. J. Lloyd. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, 2001.
  • Herodotus. Historiae. ed. C. Hude. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1927.
  • Heubeck, A. “Books IX–XII”. A Commentary on Homer’s Odyssey. ed. A Heubeck vd. 2/3-143. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.
  • Hiatt, A. “Geography at the Crossroads: The Nuzhat al-mushtāq fī ikhtirāq al-āfāq of al-Idrīsī”. Cartography between Christian Europe and the Arabic-Islamic World, 1100-1500: Divergent Traditions. ed. A. Hiatt. 113-136. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2021.
  • Hippocrates. Collected Works. ed. H. S. Jones. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1923.
  • Homerus. Ilias, Volumen Prius, Rhapsodias I-XII Continens / Volumen Alterum, Rhapsodias XIII-XXIV et Indicem Nominum Continens. ed. M. L. West. Monachius, Lipsia: K. G. Saur, 2000.
  • Honigmann, E. Die sieben Klimata und die ΠΟΛΕΙΣ ΕΠΙΣΗΜΟΙ. Heidelberg: C. Winter Universitätsverlag, 1929.
  • İdrisi. Geographie d’Edrisi. çev. Amedee (trans) Jaubert. Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1836.
  • Jacob, C. “I Greci. Storia cultura arte società.” Noi e i Greci. ed. S. Settis. 1/901-953. Torino: Giulio Einaudi Editore, 1996.
  • Janni, P. La Mappa e il Periplo: Cartografia Antica e Spazio Odologico. Roma: Georgio Bretschneider, 1984.
  • Jones, A. “Ptolemy’s Geography: A Reform that Failed”. Ptolemy’s Geography in the Renaissance. ed. Z Shalev. 15-30. London: Warburg Institute, 2010.
  • Jones, A. “Ptolemy’s Geography: Mapmaking and the Scientific Enterprise”. Ancient Perspectives: Maps and Their Place in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece and Rome. ed. R. J. A. Talbert. 109-128. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press, 2012.
  • Kennedy, E. S. “Mathematical Geography”. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. ed. R. Rashed. 1/185-201. London, New York: Routledge, 1996.
  • Kim, L. “The Portrait of Homer in Strabo’s Geography”. Classical Philology 102/4 (2007), 363-388.
  • King, D. A. “Astronomy and Islamic Society: Qibla, Gnomonics and Timekeeping”. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. ed. R. Rashed. 1/129-183. London, New York: Routledge, 1996.
  • King, D. A. World-Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science. London: Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, 1999.
  • Kosmin, P. J. “The Politics of Science: Eratosthenesʼ Geography and Ptolemaic Imperialism”. Orbis Terrarum 15 (2017), 85-96.
  • Lasserre, F. Eudoxos von Knidos. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1966.
  • Lateiner, D. “Homer’s Social-Psychological Spaces and Places”. Geography, Topography, Landscape: Configurations of Space in Greek and Roman Epic. ed. M. Skempis – I. Ziogas. 63-94. Berlin, Boston: Walter de Gruyter, 2014.
  • Lloyd, G. E. R. “Saving the Appearances”. Classical Quarterly 28 (1978), 202-222.
  • Maqbul, A. S. “Cartography of al-Sharif al-Idrisi”. Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies. ed. J. B. Harley – D. Woodward. 2/156-174. The History of Cartography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
  • Mas’udi. El-Mas’udi’s Historical Encyclopaedia entitled “Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems. çev. A. Sprenger. London: The Oriental Translation Fund, 1841.
  • Mette, H. J (ed.). Pytheas von Massalia. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1952.
  • Newmeyer, S. “The Concept of Climate and National Superiority in the Talmud and Its Classical Parallels”. Transactions and Studies of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia 5 (1983), 1-12.
  • Pausanias. Graeciae Descriptio. ed. M. H. Rocha-Pereira. Leipzig: Teubner, 1990.
  • Pindarus. Carmina cum Fragmentis, Pars 1: Epinicia. ed. B. Snell - H. Maehler. Leipzig: Teubner, 1980.
  • Plato. Opera, Vol. II. ed. J. Burnet. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1901.
  • Plato. Opera, Vol. IV. ed. J. Burnet. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1902.
  • Plutarchus. De Placitis Philosophorum Libri V. ed. G. N. Bernardakis. Leipzig: Teubner, 1893.
  • Ptolemy. Tetrabiblos. ed. F. E. Robbins. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964.
  • Purves, A. C. Space and Time in Ancient Greek Narrative. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  • Ragep F. J. “Islamic Reactions to Ptolemy’s Imprecisions”. Ptolemy in Perspective: Use and Criticism of his Work from Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century. ed. A Jones. 121-134. New York: Springer, 2010.
  • Ragep, S. P. Jaghmīnī’s Mulakhkhaṣ: An Islamic Introduction to Ptolemaic Astronomy. New York: Springer, 2016.
  • Raschke, M. G vd. “New Studies in Roman Commerce with the East”. Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt II.9.2. 604-1378. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1978.
  • Rochberg, F. “The Expression of Terrestrial and Celestial Order in Ancient Mesopotamia”. Ancient Perspectives: Maps and Their Place in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece and Rome. ed. R. J. A. Talbert. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press, 2012.
  • Romm, J. The Edges of the Earth in Ancient Thought: Geography, Exploration, and Fiction. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012.
  • Roseman, C. H. Pytheas of Massalia: On the Ocean. Chicago: Ares, 1994.
  • Schiaparelli, G. V. Le Sfere Omocentriche di Eudosso, di Callippo e di Aristotele. Milano, Pisa, Napoli: Ulrico Hoepli Editore-Librajo, 1875.
  • Shcheglov, D. A. “Eratosthenes’ Contribution to Ptolemy’s Map of the World”. Imago Mundi 69/2 (2017), 159-175.
  • Shcheglov, D. A. “Eratosthenes’ Parallel of Rhodes and the History of the System of Climata”. Klio 88 (2006), 351-359.
  • Shcheglov, D. A. “Ptolemy’s System of Seven Climata and Eratosthenes’ Geography”. Geographia Antiqua 13 (2004), 21-38.
  • Simplicius, In Aristotelis De Caelo Commentaria, ed. I. L. Heiberg. Berlin: Georg Reimer, 1894.
  • Stegena, L. “Minoische kartenahnliche Fresken bei Acrotiri, Insel Thera (Santorini)”. Kartographische Nachrichten 34 (1984), 141-143.
  • Strabo. Geographica. ed. A. Meineke. Leipzig: Teubner, 1877.
  • Suidas, Lexicon, Pars I-V. ed. A. Adler. Stuttgart: Teubner, 1928-1938.
  • Tupikova, I. “Eratosthenesʼ Measurements of the Earth: Astronomical and Geographical Solutions”. Orbis Terrarum 16 (2018), 221-254.
  • Warren, P. “The Miniature Fresco from the West House at Akrotiri, Thera, and Its Aegean Setting”. Journal of Hellenic Studies 99 (1979), 115-129.
  • Willcock, M. M. A Companion to The Iliad: Based on the Translation by Richmond Lattimore. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press, 1976.
Toplam 85 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Eskiçağ Felsefesi, Helenistik Felsefe, Felsefe Tarihi (Diğer)
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Erman Gören 0000-0003-1026-1530

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Nisan 2024
Gönderilme Tarihi 31 Aralık 2023
Kabul Tarihi 21 Şubat 2024
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2024 Cilt: 23 Sayı: Din ve Coğrafya

Kaynak Göster

ISNAD Gören, Erman. “Eski Yunan-Roma Düşüncesinde Coğrafi Mekân Fikri, Coğrafyanın Müessesleşmesi Ve İslâm Coğrafyacılığına Etkisi”. Hitit İlahiyat Dergisi 23/Din ve Coğrafya (Nisan 2024), 27-53. https://doi.org/10.14395/hid.1412876.

Hitit İlahiyat Dergisi Creative Commons Atıf 4.0 International License (CC BY NC) ile lisanslanmıştır.