COMMUNITY POLICING IN ENGLAND, WALES, AND EUROPEAN UNION: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

Abstract

Community policing philosophy has become an attractive field within the policing literature, exercised enthusiastically by police forces across England and Wales as a response to police and crime related issues ranging from poor policepublic relations to minor crime and disorder. This paper provides a critical appraisal of community participation and problem solving elements of community policing before moving onto explaining how they have been implemented in England, Wales, and European Union. Finally, this study also highlights that there are stubborn and very serious financial, organisational and cultural challenges regarding the successful application of community policing schemes in England, Wales, and European Union

Keywords

• Community Oriented Policing
• Peace-keeping
• 'Real' Policing
• Community Partnership
• Problem Solving

İngiltere, Galler ve Avrupa Birliği’nde Toplum Destekli Polisliğin Dünü, Bugünü ve Geleceği

Abstract

Toplum destekli polislik felsefesi, polislik ve suç ile ilgili konulara bir cevap olarak İngiltere ve Galler polis teşkilatları tarafından uzun yıllardır uygulanmaktadır. Burada düzensizlik ve küçük suç gibi sorunlardan başlayarak kötü polis-halk ilişkileri konularına kadar pek çok konuda sosyal bilimler literatürde cazip bir alan haline gelmiştir. Bu çalışma İngiltere, Galler ve Avrupa Birliği’nde toplumsal katılım ve problem çözme gibi toplum destekli polisliğin temel unsurlarını açıklamaktadır. Aynı zamanda toplum destekli polisliğin bu ülkelerde nasıl uygulandığını eleştirel bir perspektifle değerlendirmektedir. Son olarak İngiltere, Galler ve Avrupa Birliği’nde toplum destekli polislik modelinin başarılı bir şekilde uygulanmasını zorlaştıran yaygın ve çok ciddi finansal, kurumsal ve kültürel sorunların var olduğu vurgulanmaktadır

Keywords

• Toplum Destekli Polislik
• Barış koruma
• 'Gerçek' Polislik
• Toplum Ortaklığı
• Problem Çözme.

References

1. ACPO. (2007). Guidance on Police Community Support Officers, London: National Policing Improvement Agency.
2. ACPO. (2013). Engage: Digital and Social Media Engagement for the Police Service, London: National Policing Improvement Agency.
3. Alexander, N. (1995). Community-based Policing Does Not Prevent Crime. In: P.A. Winters (Ed.), Crime and Criminals: Opposing Viewpoints, San Diego: Greenhaven Press.
4. Alexander, N., Community-based Policing Does Not Prevent Crime. in: P.A. Winters
5. (Ed.),Crime and Criminals: Opposing Viewpoints, San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1995, p. 93.
6. Skogan, W., & Hartnett K., Community Policing Chicago Style, New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
7. Anderson, J. (2005). Community Policing-Working Together To Prevent Crime. Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
8. ACPO. (2005). Guidance on Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs), London: Association of Chief Police Officers.

9. Blair, I. (2002). The Policing Revolution: Back to the Beat. New Statesman, 725, 21- 23.
10. Bradford, B., Stanko, Elizabeth& Jackson J. (2009). Using Research to Inform Policy: The Role of Public Attitude Surveys in Understanding Public Confidence and Police Contact. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 2, 139-148.
11. British Crime Survey. (2011). Crime in England and Wales 2010/11 Findings from the British Crime Survey and police recorded crime. (2nd Edition), Rupert Chaplin, John Flatley and Kevin Smith (eds.), London: Office for National Statistics.
12. Budd, T. & Sims, L. (2001). Antisocial Behaviour and Disorder: Findings from the 2000 British Crime Survey, London: Home Office.
13. Bullock, K., & Leeney, D. (2013). Participation, 'Responsivity' and Accountability in Neighbourhood Policing. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 2, 199-214.
14. Bureau of Justice Assistance. (1994). Understanding Community Policing A Framework for Action. Washington D.C.: National Institute of Justice.
15. Cheurprakobkit, S. (2002). Community policing: Training, definitions and policy implications. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 25(4), 709–725.
16. Colvin, C. A., & Goh, A. (2006). Elements underlying community policing: Validation of the construct. Police Practice and Research. 7 (1), 19–33.
17. ComScore (2013). U.S. Digital Future in Focus: Key Insights from 2012 and What They Mean for the Coming Year. Reston, USA: ComScore.
18. Cordner, G. W. (1997). Community policing: Elements and effects. In G. P Alpert and A. Piquero (Eds.), Community policing: Contemporary readings (pp. 451- 468). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
19. Cordner, G. (2000). 'Community Policing – Elements and Effects', in Alpert, G. And Piquero, A. (eds.) Community policing – contemporary readings. Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press.
20. Cosgrove, F., & Ramshaw, P. (2013). It Is What You Do As Well As The Way That You Do It: The Value and Deployment of PCSOS in Achieving Public Engagement. Policing and Society: An International Journal of Research and Policy, 1, 1-20.
21. CSEW. (2012). Focus on Public Perceptions of Policing, Findings from the 2012/12 Crime Survey for England and Wales, London: Office for National Statistics.
22. Cunningham, S., & Wagstaff, M. (2006). Diversity of PCSO Recruits Compared to Police Officer recruits in the Metropolitan Police Service. London: Metropolitan Police Authority.
23. Dangleish D. & Myhill A. (2006), Implementation of the National Reassurance Policing Programme. Home Office: RDS.
24. Donnelly, D. (2013). Municipal Policing in the European Union: Comparative Perspectives, New York: Palgrave-Macmillian.
25. Eck, John E. & William Spelman. (1987). Problem Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in Newport News. Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum.
26. Facebook Transparency Report (2013). Global Government Requests Report.
27. Foster, J., & Jones C. (2010). `Nice to Do' and Essential: Improving Neighbourhood Policing in an English Police Force. Policing, 4, 395-402.
28. Goldstein, H. (1979). Improving Policing: A Problem-Oriented Approach. Crime and Delinquency, 24, 236-258.
29. Greene, J. R. & Mastrofski, S. D. (1988). Community policing: Rhetoric or reality. New York: Prager Publishers.
30. HMIC. (1998). What Price Policing? A study of Efficiency and Value for Money in the Police Service. London: HMIC.
31. HMIC. (2001). Open All Hours: A Thematic Inspection Report on the Role of Police Visibility and Accessibility in Public Reassurance, London: Home Office.
32. HMIC. (2011a). Adapting to Austerity: A Review of Police Force and Authority Preparedness for the 2011/12- 14/15 CST period, London: HMIC.
33. HMIC. (2011b). Demanding Times: The Front Line and Police Visibility. London: HMIC.
34. HMIC. (2012). Policing Austerity. London: HMIC.
35. Home Office. (2001). Neighbourhood Watch: Findings from the 2000 British Crime Survey. London: Office for National Statistics.
36. Home Office. (2006). A National Evaluation of Community Support Officers. Research Study 297, London: Office for National Statistics.
37. Home Office. (2010). Policing in the 21st Century: Reconnecting Police and the People. London: Home Office.
38. Home Office. (2011). Crime in England and Wales 2010/11: Findings from the BCS and Police Recorded Crime. (2nd editions), Home Office: London.
39. Home Office. (2013). Police Workforce, England and Wales, 31 March 2013, London: Office for National Statistics.
40. Innes, M. (2007). The Reassurance Function, Policing, 2, 132-141.
41. Innes, M., & Roberts, C. (2008). Reassurance Policing, Community Intelligence and the Co-Production of Neighbourhood Order, In T. Williamson (ed.), The Handbook of Knowledge-Based Policing: Current Conceptions and Future Directions, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK.
42. Jones, T. & Newburn, T. (2006). Policy Transfer and Criminal Justice. Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press.
43. Kelling, G. L., & Moore, M. H. (1988). The Evolving Strategy of Policing. Perspectives on Policing, 4, 1-15, Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice and John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.
44. Kelling, G.L.,Pate, T., Dieckman, D., & Brown, C.E. (1974). The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment: Technical report. Washington D.C: Police Foundation.
45. Kennedy, David M., Anthony A. Braga, Anne M. Piehl, and Elin J. Waring. (2001). Reducing Gun Violence: The Boston Gun Project’s Operation Ceasefire. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.
46. Lister, S., Fowler, D.P. & Staniforth, A (2014). Community Engagement: Evidence Review. N8 Policing Research Partnership: Leeds.
47. Long J, Wells, W., & Leon-Granados W. D. (2002). Implementation Issues in A Community and Police Partnership in Law Enforcement Space: Lessons from A Case-Study of A Community Policing Approach to Domestic Violence. Police Practice and Research, 3, 231-46.
48. Mills, H., Silvestri, A., & Grimshaw, R. (2010). Police expenditure 1999-2009, Centre for crime and justice studies, London: Hadley Trust.
49. Ministry of Justice. (2011). Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System (2011). London: Office for National Statistics.
50. Myhill, A. & Beak, K. (2008). Cooperation, and Crime Reduction. London: National Policing Improvement Agency.
51. National Research Council. (2004). Effectiveness of Police Activity in Reducing Crime, disorder and fear. In Wesley Skogan and Kathleen Frydl (eds.), Fairness and effectiveness in policing: The evidence (pp. 217-251). Committee to Review Research on Police Policy and Practices. Committee on Law and Justice, Division of Behavioural and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press
52. Fielding, N. G., (1995). Community Policing, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
53. Police Foundation (1981). The Newark Foot Patrol Experiment. Police Foundation: Washington, D.C.
54. Procter R,, Crump , J., Karstedt , S., Voss, A., & Cantijoch, M. (2013). What Were The Police Doing on Twitter?, Policing & Society, 4, 413-436.
55. Ratcliffe, J. H. (2008). Intelligence-Led Policing. Willan Publishing: Cullompton, Devon.
56. San Diego Police (2014) Problem Oriented Policing. Available at: http://www.sandiego.gov/police/about/problem.shtm
57. Schneider, S. R. (1998). Overcoming Barriers to Communication between Police and Socially Disadvantaged Neighbourhoods: A Critical Theory of Community Policing. Crime Law and Social Change, 4, 347-377.
58. Sherman, L.W, Gottfredson. D.C, MacKenzie,D.L, Eck J, Reuter P, & Bushway S.D. (1998). Preventing Crime: What Works, What Doesn’t, What’s Promising, Washington D.C.: National Institute of Justice.
59. Shotland, R. L. & Goodstein, L. I. (1984). The Role of Bystanders in Crime Control. Journal of Social Issues, 1, 9–26.
60. Sims, L. (2001). Neighbourhood Watch: Findings from the 2000 British Crime Survey. Home Office: London.
61. Skogan, G. W. (1992). Disorder and Decline: Crime and the Spiral of Decay in American Neighbourhood, (2nd editions), Los Angeles: University of California Press.
62. Skogan, W., & Hartnett K. (1997). Community Policing Chicago Style, New York: Oxford University Press.
63. Skogan, W. (1995). Community Participation and Community Policing, Institute for Police Research, A Paper Presented at the Workshop on Evaluating Police Service Delivery, University of Montreal: Canada.
64. Skogan, W. (2006). Asymmetry in the Impact of Encounters with the Police. Policing and Society, 2, 99-126.
65. Smith, D., & Visher, C. (1981). Street Level Justice: Situational Determinants of Police Arrest Decisions. Social Problems, 29, 167-78.
66. Sparrow, Malcolm K., Moore, M. H. & Kennedy, D. M. (1990). Beyond 911: A New Era in Policing. New York: Basic Books.
67. Stephens, M. (1988). Policing: The Critical Issues, Harvester: Wheatsheaf.
68. Strickland, P., & Beard, J. (2012). Police Community Support Officers. London: House of Commons Library.
69. Telegraph (2010). Lives at Risk from Civilianised Police Service, Rank and File Warn order/7725462/Lives-at-risk-from-civilianised-police-service-rank-and-file- warn.html) [accessed 28/10/2014]
70. Tiedke K., Freeman W., Sower C., & Holland, J. (1957). Community Involvement. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.
71. Tuffin, R., Morris, J., & Poole, A. (2006). An Evaluation of the Impact of the National Reassurance Policing Programme, Home Office: London.
72. Trojanowicz, R. C. (1983). An Evaluation of a Neighbourhood Foot Patrol Program, Journal of Police Science and Administration, 11: 410–419.
73. Trojanowicz, R.C. (1982). Evaluation of the Neighbourhood Foot Patrol Program in Flint, Michigan. East Lansing: Michigan State University.
74. Wakefield, A., (2006). The Value Of Foot Patrol: a Review Of Research. London: The Police Foundation.
75. Weinberger, B. (1995). The Best Police in the World: an Oral History of British Policing. Aldershot: Scolar.
76. Weisburd., D., Telep., C.W., Hinkle. J.C. & Eck, J.E. (2008). The Effects of Problem Oriented Policing on Crime and Disorder. A Campbell Collaboration Systematic Review, 14, DOI: 10.4073/csr.2008.14.
77. Verma, A.; Das, D. K. and, Abraham, M. (Eds.) (2013). Global Community Policing: Problems and Challenges, New York: CRC Press.