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High Dose Flaxseed Exposure Induces Dose-Dependent Histopathological Alterations in Rat Lung Tissue: An Experimental Model of Cyanogenic Toxicity

Year 2026, Volume: 10 Issue: 1 , 59 - 65 , 29.04.2026
https://doi.org/10.46332/aemj.1759173
https://izlik.org/JA89XX98UZ

Abstract

Purpose: Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) is a widely consumed functional food rich in omega-3 fatty acids, lignans, and fiber. However, due to its cyanogenic glycoside content, excessive consumption may lead to toxic effects. This study aimed to evaluate the histopathological effects of high-dose oral flaxseed administration on rat lung tissue.

Materials and Methods: Thirty-two adult female Wistar Albino rats were randomly divided into four groups (n=8 each): Control, Low Dose (1.4 g/kg/day), Medium Dose (2.8 g/kg/day), and High Dose (5.6 g/kg/day). Flaxseed was administered via oral gavage for seven days. At the end of the experiment, the rats were sacrificed under anesthesia. Lung tissues were fixed in 10% neutral for-malin, stained with H&E, and examined under light microscopy

Results: No pathological changes were observed in the control and low-dose groups. In the medium-dose group, vascular congestion was noted. The high-dose group exhibited vascular congestion, mononuclear cell infiltration, and interalveolar septal thickening. These findings indicate that flaxseed administration induces dose-dependent inflammatory and structural alterations in lung tissue

Conclusion: Short-term high-dose flaxseed intake causes significant histopathological changes in rat lung tissue. Findings such as vascular congestion, inflammatory infiltration, and septal thickening suggest potential pulmonary toxicity. The absence of similar findings at lower doses supports a dose-dependent relationship. These results emphasize the need for cautious use of functional herbal products and encourage further biochemical and molecular studies to elucidate underlying mechanisms.

Ethical Statement

The study was approved by the Süleyman Demirel University Local Animal Ethics Committee (Protocol No: 15.09.2022-06/87).

Project Number

15/09/2022 06/87

Thanks

The authors would like to thank the staff of the Süleyman Demirel University Experimental Animals and Medical Research Center for their support.

References

  • 1. Oomah, B. D., Mazza, G., & Kenaschuk, E. O. (1992). Cyanogenic compounds in flaxseed. Journal of Agricultural and Food chemistry, 40(8), 1346-1348. doi:10.1021/jf00020a010
  • 2. Rabetafika HN, Van Remoortel V, Danthine S, Paquot M, Blecker C. Flaxseed proteins: food uses and health benefits. Int J Food Sci Technol. 2011;46(2):221-228. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2010.02477.x.
  • 3. Mueed, A., Shibli, S., Jahangir, M., Jabbar, S., & Deng, Z. (2023). A comprehensive review of flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.): health-affecting compounds, mechanism of toxicity, detoxification, anticancer and potential risk. . Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 63(32), 11081-11104. doi:10.1080/10408398.2022.2092718
  • 4. İşleroğlu, H., & Yıldırım, Z. Y. M. (2005). Fonksiyonel bir gıda olarak keten tohumu. Journal of Agricultural Faculty of Gaziosmanpaşa University (JAFAG), 2005(2), 23-30.Link: https://izlik.org/JA33YW83PY
  • 5. Nelson L. Acute cyanide toxicity: mechanisms and manifestations. J Emerg Nurs. 2006;32(4):S8-S11. doi:10.1016/j.jen.2006.05.012.
  • 6. Baker, A., Garner, M. C., Kimberley, K. W., Sims, D. B., Stordock, J. H., Taggart, R. P., & Walton, D. J. (2018). Cyanide toxicity of freshly prepared smoothies and juices frequently consumed. European journal of nutrition & food safety, 8(4), 215. doi: 10.9734/ejnfs/2018/44004
  • 7. Banea-Mayambu JP, Tylleskär T, Tylleskär K, Gebre-Medhin M, Rosling H. Dietary cyanide from insufficiently processed cassava and growth retardation in children in the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire). Ann Trop Paediatr. 2000;20(1):34-40. doi:10.1080/02724930092048
  • 8. Armağan İ, Yeşilot Ş. Excessive use of flaxseed may pose a threat to kidney tissue: an experimental study. Med J SDU. 2023;30(1):89-96. doi: 10.17343/sdutfd.1247065.
  • 9. Özgçmen, M. (2020). Bilinçsiz Tüketilen Keten Tohumunun Kemik Doku Üzerine Etkisi. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi, 11(2), 206-211. Link: https://izlik.org/JA52ER35DW
  • 10. Rittirsch, D., Huber-Lang, M. S., Flierl, M. A., & Ward, P. A. (2009). Immunodesign of experimental sepsis by cecal ligation and puncture. Nature protocols, 4(1), 31-36. doi: 10.1038/nprot.2008.214
  • 11. Food and Drug Administration. (2005). Estimating the safe starting dose in clinical trials for therapeutics in adult healthy volunteers. Rockville, Maryland, USA: US: Food and Drug administration. Link:https://www.fda.gov/media/72309/download
  • 12. Raška F, Lipový B, Hladík M, Holoubek J. Cyanide poisoning in patients with inhalation injury—the phantom menace. Acta Chir Plast. 2021;63(4):185-189. doi:10.48095/ccachp2021185
  • 13. Vetter J. Plant cyanogenic glycosides. Toxicon. 2000;38(1):11-36. doi:10.1016/S0041-0101(99)00128-2
  • 14. Tahermohammadi, H., Kaveh, S., & Sadr, S. (2021). Possible effect and mechanism of action of flaxseed on cystic fibrosis pulmonary disorder: a medical hypothesis. Journal of Pediatric Perspectives, 9(9), 14400-14412. doi:10.22038/ijp.2020.53208.4218

Keten Tohumunun Yüksek Dozda Uygulanmasının Rat Akciğer Dokusunda Doz Bağımlı Histopatolojik Değişikliklere Yol Açması: Deneysel Bir Siyanür Toksisitesi

Year 2026, Volume: 10 Issue: 1 , 59 - 65 , 29.04.2026
https://doi.org/10.46332/aemj.1759173
https://izlik.org/JA89XX98UZ

Abstract

Amaç: Keten tohumu (Linum usitatissimum L.), omega-3 yağ asitleri, lignanlar ve lif bakımından zengin olması nedeniyle yaygın tüketilen fonksiyonel bir gıdadır. Ancak içerdiği siyanojenik glikozitler nedeniyle aşırı tüketimi toksik etkilere yol açabilir. Bu çalışmada, yüksek doz oral keten tohumu uygulamasının rat akciğer dokusunda oluşturduğu histopatolojik etkiler değerlendirildi.

Araçlar ve Yöntem: 32 erişkin dişi Wistar Albino rat, sekizerli dört gruba ayrıldı: Kontrol, Düşük Doz (1.4 g/kg/gün), Orta Doz (2.8 g/kg/gün) ve Yüksek Doz (5.6 g/kg/gün). Keten tohumu oral gavaj yoluyla 7 gün boyunca uygulandı. Deney sonunda akciğer dokuları çıkarılarak %10 nötral formalinle tespit edildi, H-E ile boyandı ve ışık mikroskobunda değerlendirildi.

Bulgular: Kontrol ve düşük doz gruplarında patolojik bulgu saptanmadı. Orta doz grubunda vasküler konjesyon izlenirken, yüksek doz grubunda vasküler konjesyonla birlikte mononükleer hücre infiltrasyonu ve interalveolar septum kalınlaşması görüldü. Bulgular, keten tohumunun doza bağlı olarak akciğer dokusunda inflamasyon ve yapısal değişikliklere yol açabileceğini göstermektedir.

Sonuç: Yüksek dozda kısa süreli keten tohumu alımı, rat akciğer dokusunda belirgin histopatolojik değişikliklere neden olmuştur. Bulgular, keten tohumunun yüksek dozlarda potansiyel pulmoner toksisite riski taşıdığını göstermektedir. Bitkisel içerikli fonksiyo-nel gıdaların aşırı tüketimi konusunda dikkatli olunmalı; ileri biyokimyasal ve moleküler çalışmalarla mekanizmalar aydınlatıl-malıdır.

Ethical Statement

Bu çalışma, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Hayvan Etik Kurulu tarafından onaylanmıştır (Protokol No: 15.09.2022-06/87).

Project Number

15/09/2022 06/87

Thanks

Yazarlar, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Deney Hayvanları ve Tıbbi Araştırma Merkezi çalışanlarına verdikleri destekten dolayı teşekkür eder.

References

  • 1. Oomah, B. D., Mazza, G., & Kenaschuk, E. O. (1992). Cyanogenic compounds in flaxseed. Journal of Agricultural and Food chemistry, 40(8), 1346-1348. doi:10.1021/jf00020a010
  • 2. Rabetafika HN, Van Remoortel V, Danthine S, Paquot M, Blecker C. Flaxseed proteins: food uses and health benefits. Int J Food Sci Technol. 2011;46(2):221-228. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2010.02477.x.
  • 3. Mueed, A., Shibli, S., Jahangir, M., Jabbar, S., & Deng, Z. (2023). A comprehensive review of flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.): health-affecting compounds, mechanism of toxicity, detoxification, anticancer and potential risk. . Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 63(32), 11081-11104. doi:10.1080/10408398.2022.2092718
  • 4. İşleroğlu, H., & Yıldırım, Z. Y. M. (2005). Fonksiyonel bir gıda olarak keten tohumu. Journal of Agricultural Faculty of Gaziosmanpaşa University (JAFAG), 2005(2), 23-30.Link: https://izlik.org/JA33YW83PY
  • 5. Nelson L. Acute cyanide toxicity: mechanisms and manifestations. J Emerg Nurs. 2006;32(4):S8-S11. doi:10.1016/j.jen.2006.05.012.
  • 6. Baker, A., Garner, M. C., Kimberley, K. W., Sims, D. B., Stordock, J. H., Taggart, R. P., & Walton, D. J. (2018). Cyanide toxicity of freshly prepared smoothies and juices frequently consumed. European journal of nutrition & food safety, 8(4), 215. doi: 10.9734/ejnfs/2018/44004
  • 7. Banea-Mayambu JP, Tylleskär T, Tylleskär K, Gebre-Medhin M, Rosling H. Dietary cyanide from insufficiently processed cassava and growth retardation in children in the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire). Ann Trop Paediatr. 2000;20(1):34-40. doi:10.1080/02724930092048
  • 8. Armağan İ, Yeşilot Ş. Excessive use of flaxseed may pose a threat to kidney tissue: an experimental study. Med J SDU. 2023;30(1):89-96. doi: 10.17343/sdutfd.1247065.
  • 9. Özgçmen, M. (2020). Bilinçsiz Tüketilen Keten Tohumunun Kemik Doku Üzerine Etkisi. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi, 11(2), 206-211. Link: https://izlik.org/JA52ER35DW
  • 10. Rittirsch, D., Huber-Lang, M. S., Flierl, M. A., & Ward, P. A. (2009). Immunodesign of experimental sepsis by cecal ligation and puncture. Nature protocols, 4(1), 31-36. doi: 10.1038/nprot.2008.214
  • 11. Food and Drug Administration. (2005). Estimating the safe starting dose in clinical trials for therapeutics in adult healthy volunteers. Rockville, Maryland, USA: US: Food and Drug administration. Link:https://www.fda.gov/media/72309/download
  • 12. Raška F, Lipový B, Hladík M, Holoubek J. Cyanide poisoning in patients with inhalation injury—the phantom menace. Acta Chir Plast. 2021;63(4):185-189. doi:10.48095/ccachp2021185
  • 13. Vetter J. Plant cyanogenic glycosides. Toxicon. 2000;38(1):11-36. doi:10.1016/S0041-0101(99)00128-2
  • 14. Tahermohammadi, H., Kaveh, S., & Sadr, S. (2021). Possible effect and mechanism of action of flaxseed on cystic fibrosis pulmonary disorder: a medical hypothesis. Journal of Pediatric Perspectives, 9(9), 14400-14412. doi:10.22038/ijp.2020.53208.4218
There are 14 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Emergency Medicine, Clinical Sciences (Other)
Journal Section Research Article
Authors

Hamit Hakan Armağan 0000-0002-5749-3753

Ahmet Yunus Hatip 0000-0002-7595-2175

Furkan Çağrı Oğuzlar 0000-0002-9214-3994

İlkay Armağan 0000-0002-8080-9429

Project Number 15/09/2022 06/87
Submission Date August 5, 2025
Acceptance Date December 6, 2025
Publication Date April 29, 2026
DOI https://doi.org/10.46332/aemj.1759173
IZ https://izlik.org/JA89XX98UZ
Published in Issue Year 2026 Volume: 10 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Armağan, H. H., Hatip, A. Y., Oğuzlar, F. Ç., & Armağan, İ. (2026). High Dose Flaxseed Exposure Induces Dose-Dependent Histopathological Alterations in Rat Lung Tissue: An Experimental Model of Cyanogenic Toxicity. Ahi Evran Medical Journal, 10(1), 59-65. https://doi.org/10.46332/aemj.1759173
AMA 1.Armağan HH, Hatip AY, Oğuzlar FÇ, Armağan İ. High Dose Flaxseed Exposure Induces Dose-Dependent Histopathological Alterations in Rat Lung Tissue: An Experimental Model of Cyanogenic Toxicity. Ahi Evran Med J. 2026;10(1):59-65. doi:10.46332/aemj.1759173
Chicago Armağan, Hamit Hakan, Ahmet Yunus Hatip, Furkan Çağrı Oğuzlar, and İlkay Armağan. 2026. “High Dose Flaxseed Exposure Induces Dose-Dependent Histopathological Alterations in Rat Lung Tissue: An Experimental Model of Cyanogenic Toxicity”. Ahi Evran Medical Journal 10 (1): 59-65. https://doi.org/10.46332/aemj.1759173.
EndNote Armağan HH, Hatip AY, Oğuzlar FÇ, Armağan İ (April 1, 2026) High Dose Flaxseed Exposure Induces Dose-Dependent Histopathological Alterations in Rat Lung Tissue: An Experimental Model of Cyanogenic Toxicity. Ahi Evran Medical Journal 10 1 59–65.
IEEE [1]H. H. Armağan, A. Y. Hatip, F. Ç. Oğuzlar, and İ. Armağan, “High Dose Flaxseed Exposure Induces Dose-Dependent Histopathological Alterations in Rat Lung Tissue: An Experimental Model of Cyanogenic Toxicity”, Ahi Evran Med J, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 59–65, Apr. 2026, doi: 10.46332/aemj.1759173.
ISNAD Armağan, Hamit Hakan - Hatip, Ahmet Yunus - Oğuzlar, Furkan Çağrı - Armağan, İlkay. “High Dose Flaxseed Exposure Induces Dose-Dependent Histopathological Alterations in Rat Lung Tissue: An Experimental Model of Cyanogenic Toxicity”. Ahi Evran Medical Journal 10/1 (April 1, 2026): 59-65. https://doi.org/10.46332/aemj.1759173.
JAMA 1.Armağan HH, Hatip AY, Oğuzlar FÇ, Armağan İ. High Dose Flaxseed Exposure Induces Dose-Dependent Histopathological Alterations in Rat Lung Tissue: An Experimental Model of Cyanogenic Toxicity. Ahi Evran Med J. 2026;10:59–65.
MLA Armağan, Hamit Hakan, et al. “High Dose Flaxseed Exposure Induces Dose-Dependent Histopathological Alterations in Rat Lung Tissue: An Experimental Model of Cyanogenic Toxicity”. Ahi Evran Medical Journal, vol. 10, no. 1, Apr. 2026, pp. 59-65, doi:10.46332/aemj.1759173.
Vancouver 1.Hamit Hakan Armağan, Ahmet Yunus Hatip, Furkan Çağrı Oğuzlar, İlkay Armağan. High Dose Flaxseed Exposure Induces Dose-Dependent Histopathological Alterations in Rat Lung Tissue: An Experimental Model of Cyanogenic Toxicity. Ahi Evran Med J. 2026 Apr. 1;10(1):59-65. doi:10.46332/aemj.1759173

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