A review of Pharmacological Agents Used to Treat COVID-19 During the Pandemic.

Fikriye Yasemin Özatik

doi:10.46332/aemj.805416

Review

Covid 19 Pandemisi Sırasında Kullanılan Farmakolojik Ajanların Gözden Geçirilmesi.

Year 2021, Volume: 5 Issue: 1, 61 - 72, 20.04.2021

Fikriye Yasemin Özatik

https://doi.org/10.46332/aemj.805416

Abstract

2019 Aralık ayından itibaren Çin’de bir dizi pnomöni vakası bildirildi. Dünya Sağlık örgütü yapılan bir dizi araştırmadan sonra 11 Şubat 2020 de 2019- nCoV’un neden olduğu bu hastalığı koronavirüs hastalığı (COVID-19) olarak adlandırdı. COVID-19 küresel bir salgındır. Bu derlemede COVID-19 pandemisinde kullanılan ilaçların farmakokinetik ve farmakodinamik olarak değerlendirilmesi amaçlanmıştır.

COVID-19 pandemisinde kullanılan ilaçlar ile ilgili kanıtlar henüz kesin değildir. Bu ilaçlar ile ilgili daha çok çalışmaya ve daha çok bilgiye ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır.

Keywords

KOVİD-19, ilaç, farmakodinamik, farmakokinetik

References

1. Park SE. Epidemiology, virology, and clinical features of severe acute respiratory syndrome -coronavirus-2 (SARSCoV-2; Coronavirus Disease-19). Clin Exp Pediatr. 2020;63(4):119-124.
2. Kim KH. COVİD-19. Int Neurourol J. 2020;24(1):1-1.
3. Esposito S, Noviello S, Pagliano P. Update on treatment of COVID-19: ongoing studies between promising and disappointing results. Infez Med. 2020;28(2):198-201.
4. Aguiar ACC, Murce E, Cortopassi WA, et al. Chloroquine analogs as antimalarial candidates with potent in vitro and in vivo activity. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist. 2018;8(3):459-464.
5. Inglot AD. Comparison of the antiviral activity in vitro of some non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. J. Gen. Virol. 1969;4(2):203-214.
6. Keyaerts E, Li S, Vijgen L, Verbeeck J, Van Ranst M, Maes P. Antiviral activity of chloroquine against human coronavirus OC43 infection in newborn mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53(8):3416-3421.
7. Tan YW, Yam WK, Sun J, Chu JJI. An evaluation of chloroquine as a broad-acting antiviral against hand, foot and mouth disease. Antivir Res. 2018;149(2018):143-149.
8. Li C, Zhu X, Ji X, et al. Chloroquine, a FDA-approved drug, prevents Zika virus infection and its associated congenital microcephaly in mice. EBioMedicine. 2017;24:189-194.
9. Yan Y, Zou Z, Sun Y, et al. Anti-malaria drug chloroquine is highly effective in treating avian influenza A H5N1 virus infection in an animal model. Cell Res. 2013;23(2):300-302.
10. Paton NI, Lee L, Xu Y, et al. Chloroquine for influenza prevention: a randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled trial. Lancet Infect. Dis 2011;11(9):677-683.
11. Delogu I, de Lamballerie X. Chikungunya disease and chloroquine treatment. J Med Virol. 2011;83(6): 1058-1059.
12. Katz SJ, Russell AS. Re-evaluation of antimalarials in treating rheumatic diseases: re-appreciation and insights into new mechanisms of action. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2011;23(3):278-281.
13. Şimşek Yavuz S, Ünal S. Antiviral Treatment of COVID-19. Turk J Med Sci. 2020;50:611-619.
14. Schrezenmeie T, Dörner E. Mechanisms of action of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine: implications for rheumatology. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 2020;16:155-166.
15. Lu YL, Chen CC, Chang MY. Potential therapeutic agents against COVID-19: What we know so far. J Chin Med Assoc. 2020;83(6):534-536.
16. Yao X, Ye F, Zhang M, et al. In vitro antiviral activity and projection of optimized dosing design of hydroxychloroquine for the treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(15):732-739.
17. Borba MGS, Val FFA, Sampaio VS, et al. Effect of High vs Low Doses of Chloroquine Diphosphate as Adjunctive Therapy for Patients Hospitalized With Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Infection: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(4):e208857.
18. Jie Z, He H, Xi H, Zhi Z. Multicenter collaboration group of Department of Science and Technology of Guangdong Province and Health Commission of Guangdong Province for chloroquine in the treatment of novel coronavirus pneumonia. Expert consensus on chloroquine phosphate for the treatment of novel coronavirus pneumonia. 2020;43(3):185-188.
19. Barlow A, Landolf KM, Barlow B, et al. Review of Emerging Pharmacotherapy for the Treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019. Pharmacotherapy. 2020; 40(5):416-437.
20. Plaquenil Hydroxychloroquıne Sulfate Tablets, USP. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2017/009768s037s045s047lbl.pdf. Erişim Tarihi:28.02.2021.
21. Touret F, de Lamballerie X. Of chloroquine and COVID-19. Antiviral Res. 2020;177:104762.
22. Aralen. Chloroquıne Phosphate, USP. https://www. access datafda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2017/006002s044lbl.pdf. Erişim Tarihi: 28.02.2021.
23. de Wit E, Feldmann F, Cronin J, et al. Prophylactic and therapeutic remdesivir (GS-5734) treatment in the rhesus macaque model of MERS-CoV infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2020;117(12):6771-6776.
24. Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Leist SR. Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):222. doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-13940-6.
25. Grein J, Ohmagari N, Shin D, et al. Compassionate Use of Remdesivir for Patients With Severe Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(24):2327-2336.
26. Agostini ML, Andres EL, Sims AC, et al. Coronavirus susceptibility to the antiviral remdesivir (GS-5734) is mediated by the viral polymerase and the proofreading exoribonuclease. Asm Journals. 2018;9(2):e00221-18.
27. Li Z, Wang X, Cao D, Sun R, Li C, Li G. Rapid Review for the Anti-Coronavirus Effect of Remdesivir. Drug Discov Ther. 2020;14(2):73-76.
28. Warren TK, Jordan R, Lo MK, et al. Therapeutic efficacy of the small molecule GS-5734 against Ebola virus in rhesus monkeys. Nature. 2016;531(7594):381-385.
29. Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, et al. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res. 2020;30(3):269-271.
30. Holshue ML, DeBolt C, Lindquist S, et al. First case of 2019 novel coronavirus in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(10):929-936.
31. Grein J, Ohmagari N, Shin D, et al. Compassionate use of remdesivir for patients with severe Covid 19. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(24):2327-2336.
32. Furuta Y, Gowen BB, Takahashi K, Shiraki G, Smee BF, Barnard DL. Favipiravir (T-705), a Novel Viral RNA Polymerase Inhibitor. Antiviral Res. 2013;100(2):446-454.
33. Du YX, Chen XP. Favipiravir: Pharmacokinetics and Concerns About Clinical Trials for 2019‐nCoV Infection. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2020;108(2):242-247.
34. Wang Y, Guohui F, Salam A, et al. Comparative effectiveness of combined favipiravir and oseltamivir therapy versus oseltamivir monotherapy in critically ill patients with influenza virus infection. J Infect Dis. 2020;323(11):1061-1069.
35. Madelain, V, Nguyen THT, Olivo A, et al. Ebola virus infection: review of the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of drugs considered for testing in human efficacy trials. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2016;55:907-923.
36. Cai, Q, Yang M, Liu D, et al. Experimental treatment with Favipiravir for COVID‐19: an open‐label control study. Engineering. 2020;6(10):1192-1198.
37. Obach RS, Huynh P, Allen MC, Beedham C. Human liver aldehyde oxidase: inhibition by 239 drugs. J Clin Pharmacol. 2004;44(1):7-19.
38. Renwick AB, Ball SE, Tredger JM, et al. Inhibition of zaleplon metabolism by cimetidine in the human liver: in vitro studies with subcellular fractions and precision‐cut liver slices. Xenobiotica. 2002;32(10):849-862.
39. Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Leist SR, et al. Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):222.
40. Zumla A, Chan JF, Azhar EI, Hui DSC, Yuen YK. Coronaviruses—drug discovery and therapeutic options. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2016;15(5):327-347.
41. Li H, Liu SM, Yu XH, Tang SL, Tang CK. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): current status and future perspectives. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;55(5):105951.
42. van der Laan LE, Garcia-Prats AJ, Schaaf HS, Tikiso T, Wiesner L. Pharmacokinetics and Drug-Drug Interactions of Lopinavir-Ritonavir Administered with First- and Second-Line Antituberculosis Drugs in HIV-Infected Children Treated for Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2018;62(2):e00420-17.
43. Foisy MM, Yakiwchuk EM, Hughes CA. Induction effects of ritonavir: implications for drug interactions. Ann Pharmacother 2008;42(7):1048-1059.
44. Mary B. Wire, Heidi B. McLean, Pendry C, Theodore D, Park JW, Peng B. Assessment of the Pharmacokinetic Interaction between Eltrombopag and Lopinavir-Ritonavir in Healthy Adult Subjects. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56(6):2846-2851.
45. Kiser JJ, Gerber JG, Predhomme JA, Wolfe P, Flynn DM, Hoody DW. Drug/Drug interaction between lopinavir/ritonavir and rosuvastatin in healthy volunteers. J. Acquir. Immune Syndr. 2008;47(5):570-578.
46. Gamiño‐Arroyo AE, Guerrero ML, McCarthy S, et al. Efficacy and safety of nitazoxanide in addition to standard of care for the treatment of severe acute respiratory illness. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;69(11):1903-1911.
47. Musarrat F, Chouljenko V, Dahal A, et al. The anti-HIV Drug Nelfinavir Mesylate (Viracept) Is a Potent Inhibitor of Cell Fusion Caused by the SARSCoV-2 Spike (S) Glycoprotein Warranting Further Evaluation as an Antiviral Against COVID-19 Infections. J Med Virol. 2020;92(10):2087-2095.
48. Viracept. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2005/021503s006lbl.pdf. Erişim Tarihi: 28.02.2021.
49. Hama R. The mechanisms of delayed onset type adverse reactions to oseltamivir. Infect Dis. 2016;48(9):651-660.
50. Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA 2020;323(11):1061-1069.
51. Sanders JM, Monogue ML, Jodlowski TZ, Cutrell JB. Pharmacologic Treatments for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Review. JAMA. 2020;323(18):1824-1836.
52. Cameron MJ, Bermejo‐Martin JF, Danesh A, Muller MP, Celvin DJ. Human immunopathogenesis of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Virus Res. 2008;133(1):13-19.
53. Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):507-513.
54. Xu X, Han M, Li T, et al. Effective treatment of severe COVID‐19 patients with Tocilizumab. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2020;117(20):10970-10975.
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56. Arabi YM, Mandourah Y, Al-Hameed F, et al. Corticosteroid therapy for critically ill patients with Middle East respiratory syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2018;197(6):757-767.
57. Ni YN, Chen G, Sun J, Liang BM, Liang ZA. The effect of corticosteroids on mortality of patients with influenza pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2019;23(1):99 doi:10.1186/s13054-019-2395-8.
58. Zha L, Li S, Pan L, et al. Corticosteroid Treatment of Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Med J Aust. 2020;212(9):416-420.
59. Jean SS, Lee PI, Hsueh PR. Treatment Options for COVID-19: The Reality and Challenges. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2020;53(3):436-443.
60. Gautret P, Lagier J, Parola P, et al. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;56(1):105949. 61. Uddin M, Mustafa F, Rizvi TA, et al. SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19: Viral Genomics, Epidemiology, Vaccines, and Therapeutic Interventions. Viruses. 2020;12(5):526.
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A review of Pharmacological Agents Used to Treat COVID-19 During the Pandemic.

Year 2021, Volume: 5 Issue: 1, 61 - 72, 20.04.2021

Fikriye Yasemin Özatik

https://doi.org/10.46332/aemj.805416

Abstract

A number of pneumonia cases have been reported in China since December 2019. After a series of researches, the World Health Organization named this disease caused by 2019-nCoV on 11 February 2020 as coronavirus disease (COVID-19). COVID-19 is a global pandemic. The aim of this review was to evaluate the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the drugs used in COVID-19 pandemic.
Evidence for eficacy of the drugs used in the COVID-19 pandemic is not yet clear. Further studies and information are needed on these drugs.

Keywords

COVID-19, drug, Pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics

References

1. Park SE. Epidemiology, virology, and clinical features of severe acute respiratory syndrome -coronavirus-2 (SARSCoV-2; Coronavirus Disease-19). Clin Exp Pediatr. 2020;63(4):119-124.
2. Kim KH. COVİD-19. Int Neurourol J. 2020;24(1):1-1.
3. Esposito S, Noviello S, Pagliano P. Update on treatment of COVID-19: ongoing studies between promising and disappointing results. Infez Med. 2020;28(2):198-201.
4. Aguiar ACC, Murce E, Cortopassi WA, et al. Chloroquine analogs as antimalarial candidates with potent in vitro and in vivo activity. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist. 2018;8(3):459-464.
5. Inglot AD. Comparison of the antiviral activity in vitro of some non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. J. Gen. Virol. 1969;4(2):203-214.
6. Keyaerts E, Li S, Vijgen L, Verbeeck J, Van Ranst M, Maes P. Antiviral activity of chloroquine against human coronavirus OC43 infection in newborn mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53(8):3416-3421.
7. Tan YW, Yam WK, Sun J, Chu JJI. An evaluation of chloroquine as a broad-acting antiviral against hand, foot and mouth disease. Antivir Res. 2018;149(2018):143-149.
8. Li C, Zhu X, Ji X, et al. Chloroquine, a FDA-approved drug, prevents Zika virus infection and its associated congenital microcephaly in mice. EBioMedicine. 2017;24:189-194.
9. Yan Y, Zou Z, Sun Y, et al. Anti-malaria drug chloroquine is highly effective in treating avian influenza A H5N1 virus infection in an animal model. Cell Res. 2013;23(2):300-302.
10. Paton NI, Lee L, Xu Y, et al. Chloroquine for influenza prevention: a randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled trial. Lancet Infect. Dis 2011;11(9):677-683.
11. Delogu I, de Lamballerie X. Chikungunya disease and chloroquine treatment. J Med Virol. 2011;83(6): 1058-1059.
12. Katz SJ, Russell AS. Re-evaluation of antimalarials in treating rheumatic diseases: re-appreciation and insights into new mechanisms of action. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2011;23(3):278-281.
13. Şimşek Yavuz S, Ünal S. Antiviral Treatment of COVID-19. Turk J Med Sci. 2020;50:611-619.
14. Schrezenmeie T, Dörner E. Mechanisms of action of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine: implications for rheumatology. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 2020;16:155-166.
15. Lu YL, Chen CC, Chang MY. Potential therapeutic agents against COVID-19: What we know so far. J Chin Med Assoc. 2020;83(6):534-536.
16. Yao X, Ye F, Zhang M, et al. In vitro antiviral activity and projection of optimized dosing design of hydroxychloroquine for the treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(15):732-739.
17. Borba MGS, Val FFA, Sampaio VS, et al. Effect of High vs Low Doses of Chloroquine Diphosphate as Adjunctive Therapy for Patients Hospitalized With Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Infection: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(4):e208857.
18. Jie Z, He H, Xi H, Zhi Z. Multicenter collaboration group of Department of Science and Technology of Guangdong Province and Health Commission of Guangdong Province for chloroquine in the treatment of novel coronavirus pneumonia. Expert consensus on chloroquine phosphate for the treatment of novel coronavirus pneumonia. 2020;43(3):185-188.
19. Barlow A, Landolf KM, Barlow B, et al. Review of Emerging Pharmacotherapy for the Treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019. Pharmacotherapy. 2020; 40(5):416-437.
20. Plaquenil Hydroxychloroquıne Sulfate Tablets, USP. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2017/009768s037s045s047lbl.pdf. Erişim Tarihi:28.02.2021.
21. Touret F, de Lamballerie X. Of chloroquine and COVID-19. Antiviral Res. 2020;177:104762.
22. Aralen. Chloroquıne Phosphate, USP. https://www. access datafda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2017/006002s044lbl.pdf. Erişim Tarihi: 28.02.2021.
23. de Wit E, Feldmann F, Cronin J, et al. Prophylactic and therapeutic remdesivir (GS-5734) treatment in the rhesus macaque model of MERS-CoV infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2020;117(12):6771-6776.
24. Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Leist SR. Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):222. doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-13940-6.
25. Grein J, Ohmagari N, Shin D, et al. Compassionate Use of Remdesivir for Patients With Severe Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(24):2327-2336.
26. Agostini ML, Andres EL, Sims AC, et al. Coronavirus susceptibility to the antiviral remdesivir (GS-5734) is mediated by the viral polymerase and the proofreading exoribonuclease. Asm Journals. 2018;9(2):e00221-18.
27. Li Z, Wang X, Cao D, Sun R, Li C, Li G. Rapid Review for the Anti-Coronavirus Effect of Remdesivir. Drug Discov Ther. 2020;14(2):73-76.
28. Warren TK, Jordan R, Lo MK, et al. Therapeutic efficacy of the small molecule GS-5734 against Ebola virus in rhesus monkeys. Nature. 2016;531(7594):381-385.
29. Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, et al. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res. 2020;30(3):269-271.
30. Holshue ML, DeBolt C, Lindquist S, et al. First case of 2019 novel coronavirus in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(10):929-936.
31. Grein J, Ohmagari N, Shin D, et al. Compassionate use of remdesivir for patients with severe Covid 19. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(24):2327-2336.
32. Furuta Y, Gowen BB, Takahashi K, Shiraki G, Smee BF, Barnard DL. Favipiravir (T-705), a Novel Viral RNA Polymerase Inhibitor. Antiviral Res. 2013;100(2):446-454.
33. Du YX, Chen XP. Favipiravir: Pharmacokinetics and Concerns About Clinical Trials for 2019‐nCoV Infection. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2020;108(2):242-247.
34. Wang Y, Guohui F, Salam A, et al. Comparative effectiveness of combined favipiravir and oseltamivir therapy versus oseltamivir monotherapy in critically ill patients with influenza virus infection. J Infect Dis. 2020;323(11):1061-1069.
35. Madelain, V, Nguyen THT, Olivo A, et al. Ebola virus infection: review of the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of drugs considered for testing in human efficacy trials. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2016;55:907-923.
36. Cai, Q, Yang M, Liu D, et al. Experimental treatment with Favipiravir for COVID‐19: an open‐label control study. Engineering. 2020;6(10):1192-1198.
37. Obach RS, Huynh P, Allen MC, Beedham C. Human liver aldehyde oxidase: inhibition by 239 drugs. J Clin Pharmacol. 2004;44(1):7-19.
38. Renwick AB, Ball SE, Tredger JM, et al. Inhibition of zaleplon metabolism by cimetidine in the human liver: in vitro studies with subcellular fractions and precision‐cut liver slices. Xenobiotica. 2002;32(10):849-862.
39. Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Leist SR, et al. Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):222.
40. Zumla A, Chan JF, Azhar EI, Hui DSC, Yuen YK. Coronaviruses—drug discovery and therapeutic options. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2016;15(5):327-347.
41. Li H, Liu SM, Yu XH, Tang SL, Tang CK. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): current status and future perspectives. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;55(5):105951.
42. van der Laan LE, Garcia-Prats AJ, Schaaf HS, Tikiso T, Wiesner L. Pharmacokinetics and Drug-Drug Interactions of Lopinavir-Ritonavir Administered with First- and Second-Line Antituberculosis Drugs in HIV-Infected Children Treated for Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2018;62(2):e00420-17.
43. Foisy MM, Yakiwchuk EM, Hughes CA. Induction effects of ritonavir: implications for drug interactions. Ann Pharmacother 2008;42(7):1048-1059.
44. Mary B. Wire, Heidi B. McLean, Pendry C, Theodore D, Park JW, Peng B. Assessment of the Pharmacokinetic Interaction between Eltrombopag and Lopinavir-Ritonavir in Healthy Adult Subjects. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56(6):2846-2851.
45. Kiser JJ, Gerber JG, Predhomme JA, Wolfe P, Flynn DM, Hoody DW. Drug/Drug interaction between lopinavir/ritonavir and rosuvastatin in healthy volunteers. J. Acquir. Immune Syndr. 2008;47(5):570-578.
46. Gamiño‐Arroyo AE, Guerrero ML, McCarthy S, et al. Efficacy and safety of nitazoxanide in addition to standard of care for the treatment of severe acute respiratory illness. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;69(11):1903-1911.
47. Musarrat F, Chouljenko V, Dahal A, et al. The anti-HIV Drug Nelfinavir Mesylate (Viracept) Is a Potent Inhibitor of Cell Fusion Caused by the SARSCoV-2 Spike (S) Glycoprotein Warranting Further Evaluation as an Antiviral Against COVID-19 Infections. J Med Virol. 2020;92(10):2087-2095.
48. Viracept. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2005/021503s006lbl.pdf. Erişim Tarihi: 28.02.2021.
49. Hama R. The mechanisms of delayed onset type adverse reactions to oseltamivir. Infect Dis. 2016;48(9):651-660.
50. Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, et al. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA 2020;323(11):1061-1069.
51. Sanders JM, Monogue ML, Jodlowski TZ, Cutrell JB. Pharmacologic Treatments for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Review. JAMA. 2020;323(18):1824-1836.
52. Cameron MJ, Bermejo‐Martin JF, Danesh A, Muller MP, Celvin DJ. Human immunopathogenesis of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Virus Res. 2008;133(1):13-19.
53. Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):507-513.
54. Xu X, Han M, Li T, et al. Effective treatment of severe COVID‐19 patients with Tocilizumab. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2020;117(20):10970-10975.
55. Soo YOY, Cheng Y, Wong R, et al. Retrospective comparison of convalescent plasma with continuing high‐dose methylprednisolone treatment in SARS patients. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004;10(7):676-678.
56. Arabi YM, Mandourah Y, Al-Hameed F, et al. Corticosteroid therapy for critically ill patients with Middle East respiratory syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2018;197(6):757-767.
57. Ni YN, Chen G, Sun J, Liang BM, Liang ZA. The effect of corticosteroids on mortality of patients with influenza pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2019;23(1):99 doi:10.1186/s13054-019-2395-8.
58. Zha L, Li S, Pan L, et al. Corticosteroid Treatment of Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Med J Aust. 2020;212(9):416-420.
59. Jean SS, Lee PI, Hsueh PR. Treatment Options for COVID-19: The Reality and Challenges. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2020;53(3):436-443.
60. Gautret P, Lagier J, Parola P, et al. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;56(1):105949. 61. Uddin M, Mustafa F, Rizvi TA, et al. SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19: Viral Genomics, Epidemiology, Vaccines, and Therapeutic Interventions. Viruses. 2020;12(5):526.
62. Amanat F, Krammer F. SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines: Status Report. Immunity 2020;52(4):583-589.
63. Shang W, Yang Y, Rao Y, Rao X. The outbreak of SARSCoV-2 pneumonia calls for viral vaccines. NPJ Vaccines. 2020;5(18):1-3.
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There are 64 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language	English
Subjects	Clinical Sciences
Journal Section	Review Articles
Authors	Fikriye Yasemin Özatik 0000-0002-8422-2975
Publication Date	April 20, 2021
Published in Issue	Year 2021 Volume: 5 Issue: 1

Cite

APA	Özatik, F. Y. (2021). A review of Pharmacological Agents Used to Treat COVID-19 During the Pandemic. Ahi Evran Medical Journal, 5(1), 61-72. https://doi.org/10.46332/aemj.805416
AMA	Özatik FY. A review of Pharmacological Agents Used to Treat COVID-19 During the Pandemic. Ahi Evran Med J. April 2021;5(1):61-72. doi:10.46332/aemj.805416
Chicago	Özatik, Fikriye Yasemin. “A Review of Pharmacological Agents Used to Treat COVID-19 During the Pandemic”. Ahi Evran Medical Journal 5, no. 1 (April 2021): 61-72. https://doi.org/10.46332/aemj.805416.
EndNote	Özatik FY (April 1, 2021) A review of Pharmacological Agents Used to Treat COVID-19 During the Pandemic. Ahi Evran Medical Journal 5 1 61–72.
IEEE	F. Y. Özatik, “A review of Pharmacological Agents Used to Treat COVID-19 During the Pandemic”., Ahi Evran Med J, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 61–72, 2021, doi: 10.46332/aemj.805416.
ISNAD	Özatik, Fikriye Yasemin. “A Review of Pharmacological Agents Used to Treat COVID-19 During the Pandemic”. Ahi Evran Medical Journal 5/1 (April 2021), 61-72. https://doi.org/10.46332/aemj.805416.
JAMA	Özatik FY. A review of Pharmacological Agents Used to Treat COVID-19 During the Pandemic. Ahi Evran Med J. 2021;5:61–72.
MLA	Özatik, Fikriye Yasemin. “A Review of Pharmacological Agents Used to Treat COVID-19 During the Pandemic”. Ahi Evran Medical Journal, vol. 5, no. 1, 2021, pp. 61-72, doi:10.46332/aemj.805416.
Vancouver	Özatik FY. A review of Pharmacological Agents Used to Treat COVID-19 During the Pandemic. Ahi Evran Med J. 2021;5(1):61-72.

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