AR-GE HARCAMALARI VE POLİTİKALARINDA SEÇİLİ ÜLKELER VE TÜRKİYE KARŞILAŞTIRMASI

Abstract

Ülkelerin ekonomik kalkınma ve büyümesinde kilit rol oynayan, ulusal ve uluslararası piyasalarda üstünlük sağlayan Araştırma-Geliştirme (Ar-Ge)’nin her geçen gün önemi özel, kamu ve diğer sektörler açısından artış göstermektedir. Bu yöndeki faaliyet alanlarının genişleyebilmesi, Ar-Ge harcamalarının ve performansının artabilmesi için kamunun politika araçları ile müdahalesi gerekliliği oluşmuştur. Bu çalışmada, Ar-Ge harcamaları ve politikalarını başarılı yürüten ülkelerde Ar-Ge harcama ve politikalarının boyutları ve ne şekilde uygulandığı sorgulanmış ve Türkiye’de uygulanabilecek politikaların belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bu doğrultuda çalışmada, Ar-Ge faaliyetlerine yönelik yapılan harcama ve politikaların seçili ülkeler ve Türkiye’de gelişimi ve uygulamaları incelenmiştir. Ülkelerin seçilmesinde Ar-Ge göstergeleri ve uyguladıkları Ar-Ge politikalarındaki başarıları etkili olmuştur. Yapılan incelemeler doğrultusunda, Ar-Ge harcama yoğunluğu Türkiye dışındaki ülkelerde OECD ülkeleri ortalamasında gerçekleşirken Türkiye’de OECD ortalamasının altında olduğu ve Ar-Ge faaliyet alanlarının arttırılmasında ise politika yapıcıların teşvik destek unsurlarına yönelimi Japonya, Almanya, Güney Kore ve İsviçre’de, ağırlıklı olarak kredi ve hibe gibi vergi dışı; Türkiye’de ise vergisel destekler sağlama yönünde geliştiği saptanmıştır.

Keywords

• Ar-Ge
• Ar-Ge Harcamaları
• Ar-Ge Politikaları
• Türkiye
• Seçili Ülkeler

COMPARISON OF R&D EXPENDICOMPARISON OF R&D EXPENDITURES AND POLITICS IN TURKEY AND SELECTED COUNTRIES TURES AND POLITICS IN TURKEY AND SELECTED COUNTRIES

Abstract

The importance of Research and Development (R&D), which plays a key role in the economic development and growth of countries and excels in national and international markets, is increasing day by day in terms of private, public and other sectors. In order to expand the fields of activity in this direction and increase R&D expenditures and performance, the necessity of public intervention with policy tools has emerged. In this study, the dimensions of R&D expenditures and policies and how they are implemented in countries that carry out successful R&D expenditures and policies were questioned and it was aimed to determine the policies that could be implemented in Turkey. In this direction, in this study, the development and applications of expenditures and policies for R&D activities in selected countries and Turkey were examined. R&D indicators and their success in the R&D policies they implemented were effective in the selection of the countries. In line with the examinations made, while the R&D expenditure intensity is on the average of OECD countries in countries other than Turkey, it is below the OECD average in Turkey and policy makers' orientation to incentive support elements in increasing R&D activity areas is predominantly in Japan, Germany, South Korea and Switzerland. non-tax, such as loans and grants; In Turkey, it has been determined that it has developed in the direction of providing tax support.

Keywords

• R&D
• R&D Expenditures
• R&D Politics
• Turkey
• Selected Countries.

References

1. Ak, M. Z., & Gülmez, A. (2004) “Atıf İndekslerine Göre Türkiye’nin Bilimsel Yayın Performansının Analizi: 1980-2003”. III. Ulusal Bilgi, Ekonomi ve Yönetim Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, (s. 527-534). Eskişehir.
2. Akhilesh, K. B. (2014) “R&D Management”, New Delhi, India: Springer.
3. Akyüz, Y. (1980) “Sermaye Bölüşüm Büyüme”, Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Yayınları.
4. Antoncic, B., & Hisrich, R. D. (2003) “Clarifying The Intrapreneurship Concept”, Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 10(1): 7-24.
5. Appelt, S. (2019) “OECD Review of National R&D Tax Incentives and Estimates of R&D Tax Subsidy Rates”, OECD and European Commission.
6. Argyres, N. S., & Silverman, B. S. (2004) “R&D, Organization Structure, and The Development of Corporate Technological Knowledge”, Strategic Management Journal, 25(8/9): 929-958.
7. Aw, B. Y., Roberts, M. J., & Xu, D. Y. (2008) “R&D Investments, Exporting, and the Evolution of Firm Productivity”. American Economic Review: Papers and, 98(2): 451-456.
8. Babacan, M. (1995) “Dünyada ve Türkiye'de Teknoparklar (Bilim ve Teknoloji Parkları)”, İzmir: Asil Ofset.

9. Barutçugil, İ. (1981) “Teknolojik Yenilik ve Araştırma-Geliştirme Yönetimi”, Bursa: Bursa Üniversitesi Yayınları.
10. Berber, M. (2006) “İktisadi Büyüme ve Kalkınma”, Trabzon: Derya Kitabevi Yayınları.
11. Bezirci, M. (2012) “Ar-Ge Teşvikleri”, 1.Baskı, İstanbul: Beta Yayıncılık.
12. Bocutoğlu, E. (2012) “İktisadi Düşünceler Tarihi”, 5. Baskı, Trabzon: Murathan Yayınevi.
13. Boschma, R. A., & Lambooy, J. G. (1999) “Evolutionary Economics and Economic Geography”, Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 9(4): 411-429.
14. Cankar, S. S., & Petkovsek, V. (2013) “Private and Public Sector Innovation and The Importance of Cross-Sector Collaboration”, The Journal of Applied Business Research, 29(6): 1597-1606.
15. Castaño, M.-S., Méndez, M.-T., & Galindo, M.-Á. (2015) “The Effect of Social, Cultural, and Economic Factors on Entrepreneurship”, Journal of Business Research, 68(7): 1496-1500.
16. Coleman, J. S. (1988) “Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital”, American Journal of Sociology, 94: 95-120.
17. Crepon, B., Duguet, E., & Mairesse, J. (1998) “Research, Innovation, and Productivity: An Econometric Analysis at the Firm Level”. NBER Working Paper 6696.
18. Çakmak, U. (2016) “Güney Kore’nin Ekonomik Kalkınmasının Temel Dinamikleri (1960-1990)”, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 21(1): 151-171.
19. Deloitte. (2020) “Survey of Global Investment and Innovation Incentives”, UK: Deloitte Publications.
20. D'Este, P., Iammarino, S., Savona, M., & Von Tunzelmann, N. (2012) “What Hampers Innovation? Revealed Barriers Versus Deterring Barriers”. Research Policy, 41(2): 482-488.
21. Devrim, F. (1983). “Maliye Politikası”. İzmir: Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Yayınları.
22. Dosi, G., & Nelson, R. R. (1994) “An Introduction to Evolutionary Theories in Economics”. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 4(3): 153-172.
23. Eker, A., Altay, A., & Sakal, M. (1994) “Maliye Politikası (Teori,İlkeler ve Yöntemler)”. Ankara: Takav Yayınları.
24. Ernst & Young. (2018) “Worldwide R&D Incentives Reference Guide 2018”. EY Publications.
25. Ernst & Young. (2020) “Worldwide R&D Incentives Reference Guide 2020”. EY Publications.
26. European Commission (2021) https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/innovation-procurement-initiatives-around-europe (25.01.2021)
27. European Commission. (2021) https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/innovation-procurement-initiatives-around-europe (7.01.2021)
28. Freeman, C. (1989) “New Technology and Catching Up”. The European Journal of Development Research, 1(1): 85-99.
29. Groen, A. J., Wakkee, I., & De Weerd-Nederhof, P. C. (2008) “Managing Tensions in a High-tech Start-up: An Innovation Journey in Social System Perspective”, International Small Business Journal, 26(1): 57-81.
30. Gumus, E., & Celikay, F. (2015) “R&D Expenditure and Economic Growth: New Empirical Evidence”, The Journal of Applied Economic Research, 9(3): 205-217.
31. Gundlach, E. (1997) “ Human Capital and Economic Development: A Macroeconomic Assessment”. Intereconomics, 32(1): 23-35.
32. Harris, R., & Moffat, J. (2011) “R&D, Innovation and Exporting”. SERC Discussion Paper 73.
33. Hassink, R. (2001) “Towards Regionally Embedded Innovation Support Systems in South Korea? Case Studies from Kyongbuk–Taegu and Kyonggi”. Urban Studies, 38(8): 1373–1395.
34. Hidalgo, A., & Albors, J. (2008) “Innovation Management Techniques and Tools: A Review From Theory and Practice”. R&D Management, 38(2): 113-127.
35. Hodgson, G. M. (1996) “The Challenge of Evolutionary Economics”. Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 152(4): 697-706.
36. Hong, Y. S. (2010) “Private-Public Alliances for Export Development: The Korean Case”. CEPAL.
37. Hornborg, A. (2011) “Technology as Fetish: Marx, Latour, and the Cultural Foundations of Capitalism”, Theory, Culture & Society, 31(4): 119-140.
38. Ildırar, M., Özmen, M., & İşcan, E. (2016) “The Effect of Research and Development Expenditures on Economic Growth: New Evidences”, International Conference on Eurasian Economies, (s. 36-43).
39. Jensen, M. C., & Meckling, W. H. (1976) “Theory of The Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs and Ownership Structure”. Journal of Financial Economics, 3(4): 305-360.
40. Jones, C. I., & Williams, J. C. (1998) “Measuring The Social Return to R&D”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 113(4): 1119-1135.
41. Jones, R. S., & Kim, M. (2015) “Enhancing Dynamism and Innovation in Japan's Business Sector”. Paris: OECD Publications.
42. Kazgan, G. (1991) “İktisadi Düşünce ve Polkitik İktisadın Evrimi”, 5. Baskı, İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi.
43. Kim, G. J. (2002) “Education Policies and Reform in South Korea”. Africa Region Human Development Working Paper Series, 29-40.
44. KOINNO. (2021) Vergabe24. https://www.vergabe24.de/auftraggeber/professionell-ausschreiben/innovationen-foerdern/ (25.01.2021).
45. Kurz, H. D. (2008) “Innovations and Profits Schumpeter and The Classical Heritage”, Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 67(1): 263-278.
46. Küçük, O. (2005) “Girişimcilik ve Küçük İşletme Yönetimi”, 2. Baskı. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.
47. Küçükkalay, A. M. (2010) “İktisadi Düşünce Tarihi”, 2.Baskı, İstanbul: Beta Yayınları.
48. Malerba, F. (2006) “Innovation and The Evolution of Industries”, Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 16(1): 3-23.
49. Manski, C. F. (2000) “Economic Analysis of Social Interactions”, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(3): 115-136.
50. Martin, S., & Scott, J. T. (2000) “The Nature of Innovation Market Failure and The Design of Public Support for Private Innovation”, Research Policy, 29(4-5): 437-447.
51. Marx, K. (1997) “Kapital (Cilt I)”,(A. Bilgi, Çev.) Ankara: Sol Yayınları.
52. Marx, K. (2011) “Kapital (7. baskı, Cilt III)”,(A. Bilgi, Çev.) Ankara: Sol Yayınları.
53. OECD. (2002) “Frascati Manual 2002: Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys on Research and Experimental Development”, Paris: OECD Publications.
54. OECD. (2006) “OECD Reviews of Innovation Policy: Switzerland”, Paris: OECD Publications.
55. OECD. (2009) “OECD Reviews of Innovation Policy: Korea”, Paris: OECD Publications.
56. OECD. (2010) “OECD Factbook 2010: Economic, Environmental and Social Statistics”. Paris: OECD Publications.
57. OECD. (2014) “Better Policies Germany: Keeping the EdgeCompetitiveness for Inclusive Growth”. Paris: OECD Publications.
58. OECD. (2014) “OECD Science, Technology and Industry Outlook 2014”. Paris: OECD Publications.
59. OECD. (2015) “Frascati Manual 2015: Guidelines for Collecting and Reporting Data on Research and Experimental Development, The Measurement of Scientific, Technological and Innovation”. Paris: OECD Publications.
60. OECD. (2017) “OECD Economic Surveys: Switzerland”. Paris: OECD Publications.
61. OECD. (2018) “Education Policy in Japan: Building Bridges Towards 2030”. Paris: OECD Publications.
62. OECD. (2020) “Enhancing Training Opportunities in SMEs in Korea”. Paris: OECD Publications.
63. OECD ve Eurostat. (2018) “Oslo Manual 2018: Guidelines for Collecting, Reporting and Using Data on Innovation”, 4th Edition, The Measurement of Scientific, Technological and Innovation Activities. Paris: OECD Publications.
64. Özgüven, A. (2011) “İktisadi Düşünceler-Doktrinler ve Teoriler”, 4.Baskı, İstanbul: Filiz Kitabevi.
65. Özsağır, A. (2014) “Yenilik Ekonomisi”, 2.Baskı, Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.
66. Parasız, İ. (2003) “Ekonomik Büyüme Teorileri”, 2.Baskı, Bursa: Ezgi Kitabevi Yayınları.
67. Pavitt, K. (1998) “Technologies, Products and Organization in the Innovating Firm: What Adam Smith Tells Us and Joseph Schumpeter Doesn't”, Industrial and Corporate Change, 7(3): 433-452.
68. Pisano, G. P. (1990) “The R&D Boundaries of the Firm: An Empirical Analysis”. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(1): 153-176.
69. Potts, J. (2003) “Evolutionary Economics an İntroduction to the Foundation of Liberal Economic Philosophy”. Discussion Paper No 324.
70. Rammer, C., & Spielkamp, A. (2006) “R&D–Strategic Elements for Innovation and Market Success”. Management & Marketing, 1(4): 3-12.
71. Rutherford, M. (1998) “Veblen's Evolutionary Programme: A Promise Unfulfilled”. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 22(4): 463-477.
72. Storper, M., & Scott, A. J. (2009) “Rethinking Human Capital, Creativity and Urban Growth”. Journal of Economic Geography, 9(2): 147-167.
73. THALEA. (2021) http://www.thalea-pcp.eu/thalea-2-ppi-overview (25.01.2021).
74. Turanlı, R., & Sarıdoğan, E. (2010) “Bilim-Teknoloji-İnovasyon Temelli Ekonomi ve Toplum”. İstanbul: İTO Akademik Yayınlar.
75. Turró, A., Urbano, D., & Peris-Ortiz, M. (2014) “Culture and Innovation: The Moderating Effect of Cultural Values on Corporate Entrepreneurship”. Technological Forecasting & Social Change, 88(C), 360-369.
76. Ünal, T., & Seçilmiş, N. (2013) “Ar-Ge Göstergeleri Açısından Türkiye ve Gelişmiş Ülkelerle Kıyaslaması”. İşletme ve İktisat Çalışmaları Dergisi, 1(1): 12-25.
77. Wallsten, S. J. (2000) “The Effects of Government-Industry R&D Programs on Private R&D: The Case of the Small Business Innovation Research Program”, The RAND Journal of Economics, 31(1): 82-100.
78. Woolthuis, R. K., Lankhuizen, M., & Gilsing, V. (2005) “A System Failure Framework For Innovation Policy Design”. Technovation, 25(6): 609-619.
79. Zhao, F. (2005) “Exploring The Synergy Between Entrepreneurship and Innovation”. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 11(1): 25-41.