Derleme
BibTex RIS Kaynak Göster

Current Treatment of Pulmonary Embolism

Yıl 2016, Cilt: 25 Sayı: 3, 433 - 455, 30.09.2016
https://doi.org/10.17827/aktd.248425

Öz

Pulmonary embolism remains a major contributor to global disease burden. Risk-adapted treatment and follow-up contributes to a favorable outcome. The recommended definitive treatment for patients with high risk pulmonary embolism is thrombolysis. For patients with a contraindication to anticoagulation and thrombolytic therapy, surgical embolectomy and catheter-based therapies are options. In patients with intermediate-high risk pulmonary embolism, initiation of parenteral anticoagulation is recommended withour delay and thrombolytic therapy should only be given in case of hemodynamic worsening. Finally, direct oral anticoagulants have been shown to be as effective as and safer than the combination of low molecular weight heparin and vitamin K antagonist(s) in patients with low- to intermediate-risk pulmonary embolism.


Kaynakça

  • White RH. The epidemiology of venous thromboembolism. Circulation. 2003;107:14-18.
  • Demir M, Erdemli B, Kurtoğlu M, Öngen G. Ulusal Venöz Tromboembolizm Profilaksi ve Tedavi Kılavuzu. İstanbul, Cortex, 2010.
  • Ghignone M, Girling L, Prewitt RM. Volume expansion versus norepinephrine in treatment of a low cardiac output complicating an acute increase in right ventricular afterload in dogs. Anesthesiology. 1984;60:132-5.
  • Mercat A, Diehl JL, Meyer G, Teboul JL, Sors H. Hemodynamic effects of fluid loading in acute massive pulmonary embolism. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:540-4.
  • Prewitt RM. Hemodynamic management in pulmonary embolism and acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. Crit Care Med. 1990;18:61-9.
  • Manier G, Castaing Y. Influence of cardiac output on oxygen exchange in acute pulmonary embolism. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992;145:130-6.
  • Capellier G, Jacques T, Balvay P, Blasco G, Belle E, Barale F. Inhaled nitric oxide in patients with pulmonary embolism. Intensive Care Med. 1997;23:1089-92.
  • Szold O, KhouryW, Biderman P, Klausner JM, Halpern P,Weinbroum AA. Inhaled nitric oxide improves pulmonary functions following massive pulmonary embolism: a report of four patients and review of the literature. Lung. 2006;184:1-5.
  • Kerbaul F, Gariboldi V, Giorgi R, Mekkaoui C, Guieu R, Fesler P et al. Effects of levosimendan on acute pulmonary embolism-induced right ventricular failure. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:1948-54.
  • Konstantinides S, Geibel A, Kasper W, Olschewski M, Blumel L, Just H. Patent foramen ovale is an important predictor of adverse outcome in patients with major pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 1998;97:1946-51.
  • Sevransky JE, Levy MM, Marini JJ. Mechanical ventilation in sepsis-induced acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome: an evidence-based review. Crit Care Med. 2004;32:548-53.
  • Kjaergaard B, Rasmussen BS, de Neergaard S, Rasmussen LH, Kristensen SR. Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary support may be an efficient rescue of patients after massive pulmonary embolism. An experimental porcine study. Thromb Res. 2012;129:e147-51.
  • Delnoij TS, Accord RE, Weerwind PW, DonkerDW. Atrial trans-septal thrombus in massive pulmonary embolismsalvaged by prolonged extracorporeal life support after thromboembolectomy. A bridge to right-sided cardiovascular adaptation. Acute Card Care. 2012;14:138-40.
  • Leick J, Liebetrau C, Szardien S, Willmer M, Rixe J, Nef H et al. Percutaneous circulatory support in a patient with cardiac arrest due to acute pulmonary embolism. Clin Res Cardiol. 2012;101:1017- 20.
  • Taniguchi S, Fukuda W, Fukuda I, Watanabe K, Saito Y, Nakamura M et al. Outcome of pulmonary embolectomy for acute pulmonary thromboembolism: analysis of 32 patients from a multicentre registry in Japan. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg. 2012;14:64-7.
  • Konstantinides SV, Torbicki A, Agnelli G, Danchin N, Fitzmaurice D, Galiè N et al. ESC Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism: The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Acute Pulmonary Embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Endorsed by the European Respiratory Society. Eur Heart J. 2014;35:3033-69.
  • Cossette B, Pelletier ME, Carrier N, Turgeon M, Leclair C, Charron P et al. Evaluation of bleeding risk in patients exposed to therapeutic unfractionated or low-molecular-weight heparin: a cohort study in the context of a quality improvement initiative. Ann Pharmacother. 2010;44:994-1002.
  • van Dongen CJ, van den Belt AG, Prins MH, Lensing AW. Fixed dose subcutaneous low molecular weight heparins vs. adjusted dose unfractionated heparin for venous thromboembolism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004:CD001100.
  • Raschke RA, Gollihare B, Peirce JC. The effectiveness of implementing the weight-based heparin nomogram as a practice guideline. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156:1645-49.
  • Middeldorp S. How I treat pregnancy-related venous thromboembolism. Blood. 2011;118:5394- 5400.
  • Samama MM, Poller L. Contemporary laboratory monitoring of low molecular weight heparins. Clin Lab Med. 1995;15:119-23.
  • Bu¨ller HR, Davidson BL, Decousus H, Gallus A, Gent M, Piovella F et al. Subcutaneous fondaparinux versus intravenous unfractionated heparin in the initial treatment of pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1695-702.
  • Warkentin TE, Maurer BT, Aster RH. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia associated with fondaparinux. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:2653-5.
  • Garcia DA, Baglin TP, Weitz JI, Samama MM. Parenteral anticoagulants: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest. 2012;141:e24S–e43S.
  • De Caterina R, Husted S, Wallentin L, Andreotti F, Arnesen H, Bachmann F et al. Vitamin K antagonists in heart disease: Current status and perspectives (Section III). Position Paper of the ESC Working Group on Thrombosis - Task Force on Anticoagulants in Heart Disease. Thromb Haemost. 2013;110:1087-107.
  • Jonas DE, McLeod HL. Genetic and clinical factors relating to warfarin dosing. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2009;30:375-86.
  • Verhoef TI, Ragia G, de Boer A, Barallon R, Kolovou G, KolovouV et al. A randomized trial of genotype-guided dosing of acenocoumarol and phenprocoumon. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:2304- 12.
  • Schulman S, Kearon C, Kakkar AK, Mismetti P, Schellong S, Eriksson H et al; RE-COVER Study Group.Dabigatran versus warfarin in the treatment of acute venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:2342-52.
  • Schulman S, Kakkar AK, Goldhaber SZ, Schellong S, Eriksson H, Mismetti Pet al; RE-COVER II Trial Investigators. Treatment of acute venous thromboembolism with dabigatran or warfarin and pooled analysis. Circulation. 2014;129:764-72.
  • EINSTEIN Investigators, Bauersachs R, Berkowitz SD, Brenner B, Buller HR, Decousus H, Gallus AS et al. Oral rivaroxaban for symptomatic venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2499- 510.
  • EINSTEIN–PE Investigators, Büller HR, Prins MH, Lensin AW, Decousus H, Jacobson BF, Minar E et al. Oral rivaroxaban for the treatment of symptomatic pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:1287-97.
  • Agnelli G, Buller HR, Cohen A, Curto M, Gallus AS, Johnson M et al. AMPLIFY-EXT Investigators. Apixaban for extended treatment of venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:699-708.
  • Hokusai-VTE Investigators. Edoxaban versus warfarin for the treatment of symptomatic venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1406-15.
  • Dalla-Volta S, Palla A, Santolicandro A, Giuntini C, Pengo V, Visioli O et al. PAIMS 2: alteplase combined with heparin versus heparin in the treatment of acute pulmonary embolism. Plasminogen activator Italian multicenter study 2. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992;20:520-6.
  • Goldhaber SZ, Haire WD, Feldstein ML, Miller M, Toltzis R, Smith JL et al. Alteplase versus heparin in acute pulmonary embolism: randomised trial assessing right-ventricular function and pulmonary perfusion. Lancet. 1993;341:507-11.
  • Becattini C, Agnelli G, Salvi A, Grifoni S, Pancaldi LG, Enea I et al. Bolus tenecteplase for right ventricle dysfunction in hemodynamically stable patients with pulmonary embolism. Thromb Res. 2010;125:e82–6.
  • Konstantinides S, Tiede N, Geibel A, Olschewski M, Just H, Kasper W. Comparison of alteplase versus heparin for resolution of major pulmonary embolism. Am J Cardiol. 1998;82:966-70.
  • Goldhaber SZ, Kessler CM, Heit J, Markis J, Sharma GV, Dawley D et al. Randomised controlled trial of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator versus urokinase in the treatment of acute pulmonary embolism. Lancet. 1988;2:293-8.
  • Meneveau N, Schiele F, Vuillemenot A, Valette B, Grollier G, Bernard Y et al. Streptokinase vs. alteplase in massive pulmonary embolism: a randomized trial assessing right heart haemodynamics and pulmonary vascular obstruction. Eur Heart J. 1997;18:1141-8.
  • Meneveau N, Schiele F, Metz D, Valette B, Attali P, Vuillemenot A et al. Comparative efficacy of a two-hour regimen of streptokinase versus alteplase in acute massive pulmonary embolism: immediate clinical and hemodynamic outcome and one-year follow-up. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998;31:1057-63.
  • Meyer G, Sors H, Charbonnier B, Kasper W, Bassand JP, Kerr IH et al. Effects of intravenous urokinase versus alteplase on total pulmonary resistance in acute massive pulmonary embolism: a European multicenter double-blind trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992;19:239-45.
  • Meneveau N, Seronde MF, Blonde MC, Legalery P, Didier-Petit K, Briand F et al. Management of unsuccessful thrombolysis in acute massive pulmonary embolism. Chest. 2006;129:1043-50.
  • Daniels LB, Parker JA, Patel SR, Grodstein F, Goldhaber SZ. Relation of duration of symptoms with response to thrombolytic therapy in pulmonary embolism. Am J Cardiol. 1997;80:184-8.
  • Stein PD, Matta F. Thrombolytic therapy in unstable patients with acute pulmonary embolism: saves lives but underused. Am J Med. 2012;125:465-70.
  • Kanter DS, Mikkola KM, Patel SR, Parker JA, Goldhaber SZ. Thrombolytic therapy for pulmonary embolism. Frequency of intracranial hemorrhage and associated risk factors. Chest. 1997;111:1241-5.
  • Meyer G, Vicaut E, Danays T, Agnelli G, Becattini C, Beyer-Westendorf J et al. Fibrinolysis for patients with intermediate-risk pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 2014;370:1402-11.
  • Levine MN, Goldhaber SZ, Gore JM, Hirsh J, Califf RM. Hemorrhagic complications of thrombolytic therapy in the treatment of myocardial infarction and venous thromboembolism. Chest. 1995;108:2915-3015.
  • Mikkola KM, Patel SR, Parker JA, Grodstein F, Goldhaber SZ. Increasing age is a major risk factor for hemorrhagic complications after pulmonary embolism thrombolysis. Am Heart J. 1997;134:69-72.
  • Sharifi M, Bay C, Skrocki L, Rahimi F, Mehdipour M. Moderate pulmonary embolism treated with thrombolysis (from the “MOPETT” Trial). Am J Cardiol. 2013;111:273-7.
  • Wang C, Zhai Z, Yang Y, Wu Q, Cheng Z, Liang L et al. Efficacy and safety of low dose recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator for the treatment of acute pulmonary thromboembolism: a randomized, multicenter, controlled trial. Chest. 2010;137:254-62.
  • Ferrari E, Benhamou M, Berthier F, Baudouy M. Mobile thrombi of the right heart in pulmonary embolism: delayed disappearance after thrombolytic treatment. Chest. 2005;127:1051-3.
  • Pierre-Justin G, Pierard LA. Management of mobile right heart thrombi: a prospective series. Int J Cardiol. 2005;99:381-8.
  • Torbicki A, Galie N, Covezzoli A, Rossi E, De Rosa M, Goldhaber SZ. Right heart thrombi in pulmonary embolism: results from the International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism Registry. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:2245-51.
  • Chartier L, Be´ra J, Delomez M, Asseman P, Beregi JP, Bauchart JJ et al. Free-floating thrombi in the right heart: diagnosis, management, and prognostic indexes in 38 consecutive patients. Circulation. 1999;99:2779-83.
  • Kinney EL, Wright RJ. Efficacy of treatment of patients with echocardiographically detected right- sided heart thrombi: a meta-analysis. Am Heart J. 1989;118:569-73.
  • Myers PO, Bounameaux H, Panos A, Lerch R, Kalangos A. Impending paradoxical embolism: systematic review of prognostic factors and treatment. Chest. 2010; 137:164-70.
  • Leacche M, Unic D, Goldhaber SZ, Rawn JD, Aranki SF, Couper GS et al. Modern surgical treatment of massive pulmonary embolism: results in 47 consecutive patients after rapid diagnosis and aggressive surgical approach. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2005;129:1018-23.
  • Aymard T, Kadner A, Widmer A, Basciani R, Tevaearai H, Weber A et al. Massive pulmonary embolism: surgical embolectomy versus thrombolytic therapy: should surgical indications be revisited? Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2013;43: 90-4.
  • Fukuda I, Taniguchi S, Fukui K, MinakawaM, Daitoku K, Suzuki Y. Improved outcome of surgical pulmonary embolectomy by aggressive intervention for critically ill patients. Ann Thorac Surg. 2011;91:728-32.
  • Aklog L, Williams CS, Byrne JG, Goldhaber SZ. Acute pulmonary embolectomy: a contemporary approach. Circulation. 2002;105:1416-19.
  • Kuo WT, Gould MK, Louie JD, Rosenberg JK, Sze DY, Hofmann LV. Catheter directed therapy for the treatment of massive pulmonary embolism: systematic review and meta-analysis of modern techniques. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2009;20: 1431-40.
  • Engelberger RP, Kucher N. Catheter-based reperfusion treatment of pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 2011;124:2139-44.
  • Hann CL, Streiff MB. The role of vena caval filters in the management of venous thromboembolism. Blood Rev. 2005;19:179-202.
  • PREPIC Study Group. Eight-year follow-up of patients with permanent vena cava filters in the prevention of pulmonary embolism: the PREPIC (Prevention du Risque d’Embolie Pulmonaire par Interruption Cave) randomized study. Circulation. 2005;112:416-22.
  • Failla PJ, Reed KD, Summer WR, Karam GH. Inferior vena caval filters: key considerations. Am J Med Sci. 2005;330:82-7.
  • Zhu X, Tam MD, Bartholomew J, Newman JS, Sands MJ, Wang W. Retrievability and device- related complications of the G2 filter: a retrospective study of 139 filter retrievals. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2011;22:806-12.
  • Aujesky D, Roy PM, Verschuren F, Righini M, Osterwalder J, Egloff M et al. Outpatient versus inpatient treatment for patients with acute pulmonary embolism: an international, open-label, randomised, non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2011;378:41-8.
  • Zondag W, Mos IC, Creemers-Schild D, Hoogerbrugge AD, Dekkers OM, Dolsma J et al. Outpatient treatment in patients with acute pulmonary embolism: the Hestia Study. J Thromb Haemost. 2011;9:1500-7.
  • Agterof MJ, Schutgens RE, Snijder RJ, Epping G, Peltenburg HG, Posthuma EF et al. Out of hospital treatment of acute pulmonary embolism in patients with a low NT-proBNP level. J Thromb Haemost. 2010;8:1235-41.
  • Torbicki A, Perrier A, Konstantinides S, Agnelli G, Galiè N, Pruszczyk P et al; ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines. Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism: the Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Acute Pulmonary Embolism of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2008;29:2276-315.
  • Lee AY, Rickles FR, Julian JA, Gent M, Baker RI, Bowden C et al. Randomized comparison of low molecular weight heparin and coumarin derivatives on the survival of patients with cancer and venous thromboembolism. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23:2123-9.
  • Kakkar AK, Levine MN, Kadziola Z, Lemoine NR, Low V, Patel HK et al. Low molecular weight heparin, therapy with dalteparin, and survival in advanced cancer: the fragmin advanced malignancy outcome study (FAMOUS). J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:1944-8.
  • Agnelli G, Prandoni P, Becattini C, Silingardi M, Taliani MR, Miccio M et al. Extended oral anticoagulant therapy after a first episode of pulmonary embolism. Ann Intern Med. 2003;139:19-25.
  • Murin S, Romano PS, White RH. Comparison of outcomes after hospitalization for deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Thromb Haemost. 2002;88:407-14.
  • Schulman S, Granqvist S, Holmstrom M, Carlsson A, Lindmarker P, Nicol P et al. The duration of oral anticoagulant therapy after a second episode of venous thromboembolism. The Duration of Anticoagulation Trial Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1997;336: 393-8.
  • Schulman S. The effect of the duration of anticoagulation and other risk factors on the recurrence of venous thromboembolisms. Duration of Anticoagulation Study Group. Wien Med Wochenschr. 1999;149:66-9.
  • Joung S, Robinson B. Venous thromboembolism in cancer patients in Christchurch, 1995–1999. N Z Med J. 2002;115:257-60.
  • Hutten BA, Prins MH, Gent M, Ginsberg J, Tijssen JG, Buller HR. Incidence of recurrent thromboembolic and bleeding complications among patients with venous thromboembolism in relation to both malignancy and achieved international normalized ratio: a retrospective analysis. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18:3078-83.
  • Grifoni S, Vanni S, Magazzini S, Olivotto I, Conti A, Zanobetti M et al. Association of persistent right ventricular dysfunction at hospital discharge after acute pulmonary embolism with recurrent thromboembolic events. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:2151–6.
  • Palareti G, Cosmi B, Legnani C, Tosetto A, Brusi C, Iorio A et al. D-dimer testing to determine the duration of anticoagulation therapy. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:1780-9.
  • Becattini C, Agnelli G, Schenone A, Eichinger S, Bucherini E, Silingardi M et al. Aspirin for preventing the recurrence of venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:1959-67.
  • Brighton TA, Eikelboom JW, Mann K, Mister R, Gallus A, Ockelford P et al. Low-dose aspirin for preventing recurrent venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:1979-87.
  • Schulman S, Kearon C, Kakkar AK, Schellong S, Eriksson H, Baanstra D et al. Extended use of dabigatran, warfarin, or placebo in venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:709-18.
  • Bauersachs R, Berkowitz SD, Brenner B, Bu¨ller HR, Decousus H, Gallus AS et al. Oral rivaroxaban for symptomatic venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2499-510.
  • Agnelli G, Buller HR, Cohen A, Curto M, Gallus AS, Johnson M et al. Apixaban for extended treatment of venous thromboembolism.N Engl J Med. 2013;368:699-708.
  • Correspondence Address / Yazışma Adresi Abdullah Tekin
  • Başkent Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi
  • Kardiyoloji Anabilim Dalı, Ankara, Turkey
  • e-mail: tekincardio@yahoo.com
  • Geliş tarihi/ Received: 03.04.2016
  • Kabul tarihi/Accepted: 12.05.2016

Pulmoner Embolinin Güncel Tedavisi

Yıl 2016, Cilt: 25 Sayı: 3, 433 - 455, 30.09.2016
https://doi.org/10.17827/aktd.248425

Öz

Pulmoner emboli küresel hastalık yüküne önemli bir katkıda bulunmaktadır. Risk uyumlu tedavi ve takip olumlu sonuçlar doğurmaktadır. Yüksek riskli pulmoner emboli hastasında tavsiye edilen kesin tedavi trombolizdir. Antikoagülasyon ve trombolitik tedaviye kontraendikasyonu olan hastalarda cerrahi embolektomi ve kateter aracılı tedaviler diğer şeçenektir. Orta-yüksek riskli pulmoner embolide parenteral antikoagülasyon gecikmeden başlanmalı ve hemodinamik kötüleşme olduğu takdirde trombolitik tedavi verilmelidir. Son olarak, düşük-orta riskli pulmoner embolide direkt oral antikoagülanların, düşük molekül ağırlıklı heparin ve K vitamini antagonisti kombinasyonu kadar etkin ve daha güvenli olduğu gösterilmiştir.


Kaynakça

  • White RH. The epidemiology of venous thromboembolism. Circulation. 2003;107:14-18.
  • Demir M, Erdemli B, Kurtoğlu M, Öngen G. Ulusal Venöz Tromboembolizm Profilaksi ve Tedavi Kılavuzu. İstanbul, Cortex, 2010.
  • Ghignone M, Girling L, Prewitt RM. Volume expansion versus norepinephrine in treatment of a low cardiac output complicating an acute increase in right ventricular afterload in dogs. Anesthesiology. 1984;60:132-5.
  • Mercat A, Diehl JL, Meyer G, Teboul JL, Sors H. Hemodynamic effects of fluid loading in acute massive pulmonary embolism. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:540-4.
  • Prewitt RM. Hemodynamic management in pulmonary embolism and acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. Crit Care Med. 1990;18:61-9.
  • Manier G, Castaing Y. Influence of cardiac output on oxygen exchange in acute pulmonary embolism. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992;145:130-6.
  • Capellier G, Jacques T, Balvay P, Blasco G, Belle E, Barale F. Inhaled nitric oxide in patients with pulmonary embolism. Intensive Care Med. 1997;23:1089-92.
  • Szold O, KhouryW, Biderman P, Klausner JM, Halpern P,Weinbroum AA. Inhaled nitric oxide improves pulmonary functions following massive pulmonary embolism: a report of four patients and review of the literature. Lung. 2006;184:1-5.
  • Kerbaul F, Gariboldi V, Giorgi R, Mekkaoui C, Guieu R, Fesler P et al. Effects of levosimendan on acute pulmonary embolism-induced right ventricular failure. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:1948-54.
  • Konstantinides S, Geibel A, Kasper W, Olschewski M, Blumel L, Just H. Patent foramen ovale is an important predictor of adverse outcome in patients with major pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 1998;97:1946-51.
  • Sevransky JE, Levy MM, Marini JJ. Mechanical ventilation in sepsis-induced acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome: an evidence-based review. Crit Care Med. 2004;32:548-53.
  • Kjaergaard B, Rasmussen BS, de Neergaard S, Rasmussen LH, Kristensen SR. Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary support may be an efficient rescue of patients after massive pulmonary embolism. An experimental porcine study. Thromb Res. 2012;129:e147-51.
  • Delnoij TS, Accord RE, Weerwind PW, DonkerDW. Atrial trans-septal thrombus in massive pulmonary embolismsalvaged by prolonged extracorporeal life support after thromboembolectomy. A bridge to right-sided cardiovascular adaptation. Acute Card Care. 2012;14:138-40.
  • Leick J, Liebetrau C, Szardien S, Willmer M, Rixe J, Nef H et al. Percutaneous circulatory support in a patient with cardiac arrest due to acute pulmonary embolism. Clin Res Cardiol. 2012;101:1017- 20.
  • Taniguchi S, Fukuda W, Fukuda I, Watanabe K, Saito Y, Nakamura M et al. Outcome of pulmonary embolectomy for acute pulmonary thromboembolism: analysis of 32 patients from a multicentre registry in Japan. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg. 2012;14:64-7.
  • Konstantinides SV, Torbicki A, Agnelli G, Danchin N, Fitzmaurice D, Galiè N et al. ESC Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism: The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Acute Pulmonary Embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Endorsed by the European Respiratory Society. Eur Heart J. 2014;35:3033-69.
  • Cossette B, Pelletier ME, Carrier N, Turgeon M, Leclair C, Charron P et al. Evaluation of bleeding risk in patients exposed to therapeutic unfractionated or low-molecular-weight heparin: a cohort study in the context of a quality improvement initiative. Ann Pharmacother. 2010;44:994-1002.
  • van Dongen CJ, van den Belt AG, Prins MH, Lensing AW. Fixed dose subcutaneous low molecular weight heparins vs. adjusted dose unfractionated heparin for venous thromboembolism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004:CD001100.
  • Raschke RA, Gollihare B, Peirce JC. The effectiveness of implementing the weight-based heparin nomogram as a practice guideline. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156:1645-49.
  • Middeldorp S. How I treat pregnancy-related venous thromboembolism. Blood. 2011;118:5394- 5400.
  • Samama MM, Poller L. Contemporary laboratory monitoring of low molecular weight heparins. Clin Lab Med. 1995;15:119-23.
  • Bu¨ller HR, Davidson BL, Decousus H, Gallus A, Gent M, Piovella F et al. Subcutaneous fondaparinux versus intravenous unfractionated heparin in the initial treatment of pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1695-702.
  • Warkentin TE, Maurer BT, Aster RH. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia associated with fondaparinux. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:2653-5.
  • Garcia DA, Baglin TP, Weitz JI, Samama MM. Parenteral anticoagulants: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest. 2012;141:e24S–e43S.
  • De Caterina R, Husted S, Wallentin L, Andreotti F, Arnesen H, Bachmann F et al. Vitamin K antagonists in heart disease: Current status and perspectives (Section III). Position Paper of the ESC Working Group on Thrombosis - Task Force on Anticoagulants in Heart Disease. Thromb Haemost. 2013;110:1087-107.
  • Jonas DE, McLeod HL. Genetic and clinical factors relating to warfarin dosing. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2009;30:375-86.
  • Verhoef TI, Ragia G, de Boer A, Barallon R, Kolovou G, KolovouV et al. A randomized trial of genotype-guided dosing of acenocoumarol and phenprocoumon. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:2304- 12.
  • Schulman S, Kearon C, Kakkar AK, Mismetti P, Schellong S, Eriksson H et al; RE-COVER Study Group.Dabigatran versus warfarin in the treatment of acute venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:2342-52.
  • Schulman S, Kakkar AK, Goldhaber SZ, Schellong S, Eriksson H, Mismetti Pet al; RE-COVER II Trial Investigators. Treatment of acute venous thromboembolism with dabigatran or warfarin and pooled analysis. Circulation. 2014;129:764-72.
  • EINSTEIN Investigators, Bauersachs R, Berkowitz SD, Brenner B, Buller HR, Decousus H, Gallus AS et al. Oral rivaroxaban for symptomatic venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2499- 510.
  • EINSTEIN–PE Investigators, Büller HR, Prins MH, Lensin AW, Decousus H, Jacobson BF, Minar E et al. Oral rivaroxaban for the treatment of symptomatic pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:1287-97.
  • Agnelli G, Buller HR, Cohen A, Curto M, Gallus AS, Johnson M et al. AMPLIFY-EXT Investigators. Apixaban for extended treatment of venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:699-708.
  • Hokusai-VTE Investigators. Edoxaban versus warfarin for the treatment of symptomatic venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1406-15.
  • Dalla-Volta S, Palla A, Santolicandro A, Giuntini C, Pengo V, Visioli O et al. PAIMS 2: alteplase combined with heparin versus heparin in the treatment of acute pulmonary embolism. Plasminogen activator Italian multicenter study 2. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992;20:520-6.
  • Goldhaber SZ, Haire WD, Feldstein ML, Miller M, Toltzis R, Smith JL et al. Alteplase versus heparin in acute pulmonary embolism: randomised trial assessing right-ventricular function and pulmonary perfusion. Lancet. 1993;341:507-11.
  • Becattini C, Agnelli G, Salvi A, Grifoni S, Pancaldi LG, Enea I et al. Bolus tenecteplase for right ventricle dysfunction in hemodynamically stable patients with pulmonary embolism. Thromb Res. 2010;125:e82–6.
  • Konstantinides S, Tiede N, Geibel A, Olschewski M, Just H, Kasper W. Comparison of alteplase versus heparin for resolution of major pulmonary embolism. Am J Cardiol. 1998;82:966-70.
  • Goldhaber SZ, Kessler CM, Heit J, Markis J, Sharma GV, Dawley D et al. Randomised controlled trial of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator versus urokinase in the treatment of acute pulmonary embolism. Lancet. 1988;2:293-8.
  • Meneveau N, Schiele F, Vuillemenot A, Valette B, Grollier G, Bernard Y et al. Streptokinase vs. alteplase in massive pulmonary embolism: a randomized trial assessing right heart haemodynamics and pulmonary vascular obstruction. Eur Heart J. 1997;18:1141-8.
  • Meneveau N, Schiele F, Metz D, Valette B, Attali P, Vuillemenot A et al. Comparative efficacy of a two-hour regimen of streptokinase versus alteplase in acute massive pulmonary embolism: immediate clinical and hemodynamic outcome and one-year follow-up. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998;31:1057-63.
  • Meyer G, Sors H, Charbonnier B, Kasper W, Bassand JP, Kerr IH et al. Effects of intravenous urokinase versus alteplase on total pulmonary resistance in acute massive pulmonary embolism: a European multicenter double-blind trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992;19:239-45.
  • Meneveau N, Seronde MF, Blonde MC, Legalery P, Didier-Petit K, Briand F et al. Management of unsuccessful thrombolysis in acute massive pulmonary embolism. Chest. 2006;129:1043-50.
  • Daniels LB, Parker JA, Patel SR, Grodstein F, Goldhaber SZ. Relation of duration of symptoms with response to thrombolytic therapy in pulmonary embolism. Am J Cardiol. 1997;80:184-8.
  • Stein PD, Matta F. Thrombolytic therapy in unstable patients with acute pulmonary embolism: saves lives but underused. Am J Med. 2012;125:465-70.
  • Kanter DS, Mikkola KM, Patel SR, Parker JA, Goldhaber SZ. Thrombolytic therapy for pulmonary embolism. Frequency of intracranial hemorrhage and associated risk factors. Chest. 1997;111:1241-5.
  • Meyer G, Vicaut E, Danays T, Agnelli G, Becattini C, Beyer-Westendorf J et al. Fibrinolysis for patients with intermediate-risk pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 2014;370:1402-11.
  • Levine MN, Goldhaber SZ, Gore JM, Hirsh J, Califf RM. Hemorrhagic complications of thrombolytic therapy in the treatment of myocardial infarction and venous thromboembolism. Chest. 1995;108:2915-3015.
  • Mikkola KM, Patel SR, Parker JA, Grodstein F, Goldhaber SZ. Increasing age is a major risk factor for hemorrhagic complications after pulmonary embolism thrombolysis. Am Heart J. 1997;134:69-72.
  • Sharifi M, Bay C, Skrocki L, Rahimi F, Mehdipour M. Moderate pulmonary embolism treated with thrombolysis (from the “MOPETT” Trial). Am J Cardiol. 2013;111:273-7.
  • Wang C, Zhai Z, Yang Y, Wu Q, Cheng Z, Liang L et al. Efficacy and safety of low dose recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator for the treatment of acute pulmonary thromboembolism: a randomized, multicenter, controlled trial. Chest. 2010;137:254-62.
  • Ferrari E, Benhamou M, Berthier F, Baudouy M. Mobile thrombi of the right heart in pulmonary embolism: delayed disappearance after thrombolytic treatment. Chest. 2005;127:1051-3.
  • Pierre-Justin G, Pierard LA. Management of mobile right heart thrombi: a prospective series. Int J Cardiol. 2005;99:381-8.
  • Torbicki A, Galie N, Covezzoli A, Rossi E, De Rosa M, Goldhaber SZ. Right heart thrombi in pulmonary embolism: results from the International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism Registry. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:2245-51.
  • Chartier L, Be´ra J, Delomez M, Asseman P, Beregi JP, Bauchart JJ et al. Free-floating thrombi in the right heart: diagnosis, management, and prognostic indexes in 38 consecutive patients. Circulation. 1999;99:2779-83.
  • Kinney EL, Wright RJ. Efficacy of treatment of patients with echocardiographically detected right- sided heart thrombi: a meta-analysis. Am Heart J. 1989;118:569-73.
  • Myers PO, Bounameaux H, Panos A, Lerch R, Kalangos A. Impending paradoxical embolism: systematic review of prognostic factors and treatment. Chest. 2010; 137:164-70.
  • Leacche M, Unic D, Goldhaber SZ, Rawn JD, Aranki SF, Couper GS et al. Modern surgical treatment of massive pulmonary embolism: results in 47 consecutive patients after rapid diagnosis and aggressive surgical approach. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2005;129:1018-23.
  • Aymard T, Kadner A, Widmer A, Basciani R, Tevaearai H, Weber A et al. Massive pulmonary embolism: surgical embolectomy versus thrombolytic therapy: should surgical indications be revisited? Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2013;43: 90-4.
  • Fukuda I, Taniguchi S, Fukui K, MinakawaM, Daitoku K, Suzuki Y. Improved outcome of surgical pulmonary embolectomy by aggressive intervention for critically ill patients. Ann Thorac Surg. 2011;91:728-32.
  • Aklog L, Williams CS, Byrne JG, Goldhaber SZ. Acute pulmonary embolectomy: a contemporary approach. Circulation. 2002;105:1416-19.
  • Kuo WT, Gould MK, Louie JD, Rosenberg JK, Sze DY, Hofmann LV. Catheter directed therapy for the treatment of massive pulmonary embolism: systematic review and meta-analysis of modern techniques. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2009;20: 1431-40.
  • Engelberger RP, Kucher N. Catheter-based reperfusion treatment of pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 2011;124:2139-44.
  • Hann CL, Streiff MB. The role of vena caval filters in the management of venous thromboembolism. Blood Rev. 2005;19:179-202.
  • PREPIC Study Group. Eight-year follow-up of patients with permanent vena cava filters in the prevention of pulmonary embolism: the PREPIC (Prevention du Risque d’Embolie Pulmonaire par Interruption Cave) randomized study. Circulation. 2005;112:416-22.
  • Failla PJ, Reed KD, Summer WR, Karam GH. Inferior vena caval filters: key considerations. Am J Med Sci. 2005;330:82-7.
  • Zhu X, Tam MD, Bartholomew J, Newman JS, Sands MJ, Wang W. Retrievability and device- related complications of the G2 filter: a retrospective study of 139 filter retrievals. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2011;22:806-12.
  • Aujesky D, Roy PM, Verschuren F, Righini M, Osterwalder J, Egloff M et al. Outpatient versus inpatient treatment for patients with acute pulmonary embolism: an international, open-label, randomised, non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2011;378:41-8.
  • Zondag W, Mos IC, Creemers-Schild D, Hoogerbrugge AD, Dekkers OM, Dolsma J et al. Outpatient treatment in patients with acute pulmonary embolism: the Hestia Study. J Thromb Haemost. 2011;9:1500-7.
  • Agterof MJ, Schutgens RE, Snijder RJ, Epping G, Peltenburg HG, Posthuma EF et al. Out of hospital treatment of acute pulmonary embolism in patients with a low NT-proBNP level. J Thromb Haemost. 2010;8:1235-41.
  • Torbicki A, Perrier A, Konstantinides S, Agnelli G, Galiè N, Pruszczyk P et al; ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines. Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism: the Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Acute Pulmonary Embolism of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2008;29:2276-315.
  • Lee AY, Rickles FR, Julian JA, Gent M, Baker RI, Bowden C et al. Randomized comparison of low molecular weight heparin and coumarin derivatives on the survival of patients with cancer and venous thromboembolism. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23:2123-9.
  • Kakkar AK, Levine MN, Kadziola Z, Lemoine NR, Low V, Patel HK et al. Low molecular weight heparin, therapy with dalteparin, and survival in advanced cancer: the fragmin advanced malignancy outcome study (FAMOUS). J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:1944-8.
  • Agnelli G, Prandoni P, Becattini C, Silingardi M, Taliani MR, Miccio M et al. Extended oral anticoagulant therapy after a first episode of pulmonary embolism. Ann Intern Med. 2003;139:19-25.
  • Murin S, Romano PS, White RH. Comparison of outcomes after hospitalization for deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Thromb Haemost. 2002;88:407-14.
  • Schulman S, Granqvist S, Holmstrom M, Carlsson A, Lindmarker P, Nicol P et al. The duration of oral anticoagulant therapy after a second episode of venous thromboembolism. The Duration of Anticoagulation Trial Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1997;336: 393-8.
  • Schulman S. The effect of the duration of anticoagulation and other risk factors on the recurrence of venous thromboembolisms. Duration of Anticoagulation Study Group. Wien Med Wochenschr. 1999;149:66-9.
  • Joung S, Robinson B. Venous thromboembolism in cancer patients in Christchurch, 1995–1999. N Z Med J. 2002;115:257-60.
  • Hutten BA, Prins MH, Gent M, Ginsberg J, Tijssen JG, Buller HR. Incidence of recurrent thromboembolic and bleeding complications among patients with venous thromboembolism in relation to both malignancy and achieved international normalized ratio: a retrospective analysis. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18:3078-83.
  • Grifoni S, Vanni S, Magazzini S, Olivotto I, Conti A, Zanobetti M et al. Association of persistent right ventricular dysfunction at hospital discharge after acute pulmonary embolism with recurrent thromboembolic events. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:2151–6.
  • Palareti G, Cosmi B, Legnani C, Tosetto A, Brusi C, Iorio A et al. D-dimer testing to determine the duration of anticoagulation therapy. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:1780-9.
  • Becattini C, Agnelli G, Schenone A, Eichinger S, Bucherini E, Silingardi M et al. Aspirin for preventing the recurrence of venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:1959-67.
  • Brighton TA, Eikelboom JW, Mann K, Mister R, Gallus A, Ockelford P et al. Low-dose aspirin for preventing recurrent venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:1979-87.
  • Schulman S, Kearon C, Kakkar AK, Schellong S, Eriksson H, Baanstra D et al. Extended use of dabigatran, warfarin, or placebo in venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:709-18.
  • Bauersachs R, Berkowitz SD, Brenner B, Bu¨ller HR, Decousus H, Gallus AS et al. Oral rivaroxaban for symptomatic venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2499-510.
  • Agnelli G, Buller HR, Cohen A, Curto M, Gallus AS, Johnson M et al. Apixaban for extended treatment of venous thromboembolism.N Engl J Med. 2013;368:699-708.
  • Correspondence Address / Yazışma Adresi Abdullah Tekin
  • Başkent Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi
  • Kardiyoloji Anabilim Dalı, Ankara, Turkey
  • e-mail: tekincardio@yahoo.com
  • Geliş tarihi/ Received: 03.04.2016
  • Kabul tarihi/Accepted: 12.05.2016
Toplam 91 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Konular Sağlık Kurumları Yönetimi
Bölüm Derleme
Yazarlar

Abdullah Tekin

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Eylül 2016
Kabul Tarihi 12 Mayıs 2016
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2016 Cilt: 25 Sayı: 3

Kaynak Göster

AMA Tekin A. Pulmoner Embolinin Güncel Tedavisi. aktd. Eylül 2016;25(3):433-455. doi:10.17827/aktd.248425