Ontological Security and Iran’s Missile Program

Year 2022, Volume: 11 Issue: 2, 233 - 255, 30.07.2022

Ali Bagheri Dolatabadi

https://doi.org/10.20991/allazimuth.1150303

Abstract

This article attempts to answer the question of why Iran is reluctant to discuss its
missile program. Unlike other studies that focus on the importance of Iran’s missile
program in providing deterrence for the country and establishing a balance of
military power in the region, or that view the missile program as one of dozens
of post-revolutionary contentious issues between Iran and the United States, this
article looks into Iran’s ontological security. The paper primarily argues that the
missile program has become a source of pride for Iranians, inextricably linked
to their identity. As a result, the Iranian authorities face two challenges when it
comes to sitting at the negotiation table with their Western counterparts: deep
mistrust of the West, and the ensuing sense of shame over any deal on the missile
issue. Thus, Iranian officials opted to preserve the identity components of the
program, return to normal and daily routines of life, insist on the missile program’s
continuation despite sanctions and threats, and emphasize the dignity and honor
of having a missile program. The article empirically demonstrates how states
can overcome feelings of shame and mistrust. It also theoretically proves that
when physical security conflicts with ontological security, governments prefer the
former over the latter, based on the history of Iran’s nuclear negotiations. They
appeal to create new narratives to justify changing their previous policies.

Keywords

: Iran’s missile program, ontological security, United States, nuclear negotiations, identity

References

• Alexandria, Innes, and Brent J. Steele. “Memory, Trauma and Ontological Security.” In Memory and Trauma in International Relations: Theories, Cases, and Debates, edited by Erica Resende and Dovile Budryte, 15–29. London: Routledge, 2014.
• Alfone, Ali. “What Iran’s Military Journals Reveal about the Role of Missiles in Strategic Deterrence.” The Arab Gulf States Institute in Washington, June 25, 2020. https://agsiw.org/what-irans-military-journals-reveal-about-the-role-of-missiles-in-strategic-deterrence/.
• Brian C. Rathbun. “Uncertain about Uncertainty: Understanding the Multiple Meanings of a Crucial Concept in International Relations Theory.” International Studies Quarterly 51, no. 1 (2007): 533–34.
• Bagheri Dolatabadi, Alii and Mohsen Shafie. From Hashemi to Rouhani: Study of Iran’s Foreign Policy. Tehran: Tisa, 2014.
• Behravesh, Maysam. “State Revisionism and Ontological (in)security in International Politics: The Complicated Case of Iran and its Nuclear Behavior.” Journal of International Relations and Development 21, no. 4 (2018): 836–57.http://doi.org/10.1057/s41268-018-0149-x.
• Berenskoetter, Felix. “Parameters of a National Biography.” European Journal of International Relations 20, no. 1 (2014): 262-288.
• Black, Stephen. “UNSCOM and the Iraqi Biological Weapons Program: Implications for Arms Control.” Political and Life Science 18, no. 1 (1999): 62–9.
• Bolton, Derek. “Targeting Ontological Security: Information Warfare in the Modern Age.” Political Psychology 42, no. 1 (2020): 127–42.
• Browning, Christopher S., and Pertti Joenniemi. “Ontological Security, Self-articulation and the Securitization of Identity.” Cooperation and Conflict 52, no. 1 (2017): 31–47.
• Chubin, Shahram, and Robert S. Litwak. “Debating Iran’s Nuclear Aspirations.” Washington Quarterly 26, no. 4 (2003): 99–114.
• Croft, Stuart. “Constructing Ontological Insecurity: The Insecuritization of Britain’s Muslims.” Contemporary Security Policy 33, no. 2 (2012): 219–35.
• Crolikowski, Alanna. “State Personhood in Ontological Security Theories of International Relations and Chinese Nationalism: an Aceptical View.” Chinese Journal of International Politics 2, no. 1 (2008): 109–33.
• Davenport, Kelsey. “The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) at a Glance.” Arms Control Association. March 2021. https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/JCPOA-at-a-glance. Elbaradei, Mohammed. The Age of Deception: Nuclear Diplomacy in Treacherous Times. Translated by Firoozeh Doroshati. Second Edition. Tehran: Iran Publication, 2014.
• Esposito, John, L. The Iranian Revolution: Its Global Impact. Florida: University Press of Florida, 1990.
• Ghadim Malalou, Ali, and Seyed A. Jafari. “The Role and Effect of the U.S. Missile Strategy on I.R.I Missile Strategy.” Journal of Defense Policy 26, no. 102 (2018):71–104.
• Ghavam Maleki, Hamidreza. “The Role of Missiles in Iran’s Deterrence Strategy.” Doctrine of Political, Defense and Security Policy 2, no. 3 (2011): 97–117.
• Ghirshman, Roman. Iran: From the Earliest Times to the Islamic Conquest. Fourth Edition. Translated to Persian by Mohammad Moein. Tehran: Scientific and Cultural Pub, 1993.
• Giddens, Anthony. Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age. California: Stanford University Press, 1991.
• Ginty, R. Mac. “Circuits, the Everyday and International Relations: Connecting the Home to the International and Transnational.” Cooperation and Conflict 54, no. 2 (2019): 234–53.
• Gopalaswamy, Bharath. “Iran’s Missile Program.” BASIC Getting to Zero Papers 4, (2008): 2–3.
• Greve, Patricia. “Ontological Security, the Struggle for Recognition, and the Maintenance of Security Communities.” Journal of International Relations and Development 21, no. 4 (2018): 858–82.
• Gustafsson, Karl, and Nina C. Krickel-Choi. “Returning to the Roots of Ontological Security: Insights from the Existentialist Anxiety Literature.” European Journal of International Relations 26, no. 3 (2020): 875–95.
• Hafeznia, Mohammadreza. Political Geography of Iran. Tehran: Samt, 2013.
• Hatami, Amir. “Iran’s Response to Western Concerns: Our Priority is Missile Power.” Euronews, August 18, 2018. https://per.euronews.com/2018/08/18/our-focus-is-on-missile-power-iran-defense-minister-reacts-to-western-concerns.
• Hajizadeh, Amir Ali. “What is the Reason for the Success of Iran's Missile Industry?” June 22, 2017. https://farsi.khamenei.ir/others-dialog?id=36942.
• Hull, Andrew W. Role of Ballistic Missile in Third World Defenses Strategies. Institute for Defense Analyses Alexandria VA, 1991.
• Hymans, Jacques E. C. “Security! What Do You Mean? From Concept to Empty Signifier.” European Journal of International Relations 4, no. 2 (1998): 226–55.
• ––––. The Psychology of Nuclear Proliferation: Identity, Emotions, Foreign Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
• Iain, Johnston Alastair. “Cultural Realism and Strategy in Maoist China.” In The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics, ed. Peter Katzenstein. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996.
• Kamrava, Mehran. “Institutions and Policy in Iran’s Relations with the GCC.” The Muslim World (2021): 408–24.
• Khamenei, Ali. “The 20 Year National Vision of the Islamic Republic of Iran.” November 14, 2003, https://irandataportal.syr.edu/20-year-national-vision
• –––. “CIA Meddled, Plotted Coups against any Popular, Anti-Imperialist Government in Latin America.” March 18, 2002. http://english.khamenei.ir/news/5848/CIA-meddled-plotted-coups-against-any-popular-anti-imperialist.
• –––. “Four Narratives of the Experience of the Cost of Compromise.” June 7, 2017, http://farsi.khamenei.ir/others-note?id=36754.
• –––. “Imam Hassan Used the Peace Treaty to Defeat the Enemy.” November 7, 2016. http://english.khamenei.ir/news/4301/Imam-Hassan-used-the-Peace-Treaty-to-defeat-the-enemy-Leader. –––. “Message about the National Day of Struggle against Global Arrogance [U.S].” November 4, 1990. https://farsi.khamenei.ir/message-content?id=2376.
• –––. “The “Second Phase of the Revolution” Statement Addressed to the Iranian Nation.” February 11, 2019, http://english.khamenei.ir/news/6415/The-Second-Phase-of-the-Revolution-Statement-addressed-to-the.
• –––. “Statement on the 20th Anniversary of Ayatollah Khomeini’s Death.” June 4, 2009, https://farsi.khamenei.ir/speech-content?id=7089.
• –––. “Statement at Imam Hossein University.” May 23, 2016. http://farsi.khamenei.ir/newspart-index?tid=5502.
• –––. “Statement at the Last Meeting between the President and the Twelfth Cabinet.” July 28, 2021, https://farsi.khamenei.ir/speech-content?id=48356.
• –––. “Statements at the Meeting of the Commanders and Staff of the Army Air Force.” February 8, 2018, https://farsi.khamenei.ir/speech-content?id=38872.
• –––. “Statements in the Meeting of the Iranian officials.” June 12, 2017, https://farsi.khamenei.ir/speech-content?id=36824.
• –––. “Statements in a Meeting with Nuclear Scientists.” February 22, 2012, https://farsi.khamenei.ir/speech-content?id=19124.
• –––. “Statements in the Meeting of Professors and Students at the University of Science and Technology.” 13 January 2009, https://farsi.khamenei.ir/speech-content?id=4992.
• –––. “Statements in a Virtual Meeting with the Participants in the Ceremony of Honoring the Veterans of the Holy Defense.” September 21, 2020, https://farsi.khamenei.ir/speech-content?id=46525.
• –––. “Supreme Leader Meets Economic Experts.” The Web site of Khamenei.ir, August 18, 2011, https://farsi.khamenei.ir/print-content?id=101504
• –––. “Supreme Leader’s Message to International Conference on Nuclear Disarmament.” April 17, 2010, https://farsi.khamenei.ir/treatise-content?id=228.
• –––. Self-Sufficiency Jihad: The Army of the Islamic Republic of Iran in Ayatollah Khamenei’s Statements. Tehran: Islamic Revolution Publications, 2015.
• –––. “The President of Tajikistan Met with the Leader of the Revolution.” January 18, 2006, https://farsi.khamenei.ir/news-content?id=1352
• –––. “To Say that the World's Future is a World of Negotiation, is either from Ignorance or Treason.” Fars News Agency, March 30, 2016, http://www.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=13950111000275.
• –––. “What are the five Predictions of Imam Khamenei Which Came True? What is his Most Recent Prediction?” August 27, 2019, http://english.khamenei.ir/news/6996/What-are-the-5-predictions-of-Imam-Khamenei-which-came-true
• –––. “Why Does Iran not Accept to Negotiate with the United States?” October 5, 2019, http://english.khamenei.ir/news/7082/Why-Does-Iran-not-accept-to-negotiate-with-the-United-States
• –––. “Why Does the Leader of Iran Support Nuclear Talks?” November 3, 2013, http://farsi.khamenei.ir/speech-content?id=27591
• Khoshkar, Amir Abbasi. “Export of Military Equipment of the Islamic Republic of Iran: Opportunities and Capacities.” The Strategic Research Center of the Expediency Council, September 21, 2020, https://csr.ir/fa/news/1063
• Laing, Ronald David. The Divided Self: An Existential Study in Sanity and Madness. London: Penguin Books, 1990 [1960].
• Lebow, Ned. National Identities and International Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.
• Lebow, Richard Ned. “Constructive Realism.” International Studies Review 6, no. 2 (2003): 346–48.
• Lupovici, Amir. “The Dual-Use Security Dilemma and the Social Construction of Insecurity.” Contemporary Security Policy 42, no. 3 (2021): 257–85.
• –––. The Power of Deterrence: Emotions, Identity, and American and Israeli Wars of Resolve. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.
• Mälksoo, Maria. “Countering Hybrid Warfare as Ontological Security Management: the Emerging Practices of the EU and NATO.” European Security 27, no. 3 (2018): 374–92.
• Mc Sweeney, Bill. Security, Identity, and Interests: A Sociology of International Relations. London: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
• McCall, Stephen M. “Iran’s Ballistic Missile and Space Launch Programs.” Congressional Research Service, January 9, 2020. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/IF10938.pdf.
• Mearsheimer, John J. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2014.
• Menashri, David. The Iranian Revolution and the Muslim World (Westview Special Studies on the Middle East). London and New York: Routledge, 1990.
• Mesbahi, Mohiaddin. “Trust and US-Iran Relations: Between the Prisoners’ Dilemma and the Assurance Game.” Iranian Review of Foreign Affairs 4, no. 1 (2013): 7–51.
• Mistry, Dinshaw. “European Missile Defense: Assessing Iran’s ICBM Capabilities.” Arms Control Today, October 2007. https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2007-10/iran-nuclear-briefs/european-missile-defense-assessing-iran%E2%80%99s-icbm- capabilities.
• Mitzen, Jennifer. “Ontological Security in World Politics and Implications for the Study of European Security.” CIDEL Workshop, October 22-23, 2004, 18-19. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi= 10.1.1.476.9317 &rep=rep1&type=pdf.
• –––. “Ontological Security in World Politics: State Identity and the Security Dilemma.” European Journal of International Relations 12, no. 3 (2006): 341–70.
• Nadimi, Farzin. “Iran’s Asymmetric Naval Warfare.” Policy Focus, September 7, 2008. https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/irans-asymmetric-naval-warfare . Nephew, Richard. The Art of Sanctions: A View from the Field. Columbia University Press, 2017.
• Perrimond, Guy. “1944–2001: The Threat of Theatre Ballistic Missiles.” TTU Online, 2002. http://www.ttu.fr/site/english/endocpdf/24pBalmissileenglish.pdf .
• Razmjoo, Ali. “Commander of the Navy of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps: Iran’s Missile Authority is a Source of National Pride.” Fars News, June 19, 2017. https://www.farsnews.ir/news/13960329002027.
• Reisinezhad, Arash. “Ontological Security and Iran’s Nuclear Problem.” International Relations Research 8, no. 1(2018): 185–214.‎
• Rezaei, Farhad. “Iran’s Ballistic Missile Program: A New Case for Engaging Iran?” Insight Turkey 18, no. 4 (2016): 181–208.
• –––. Iran’s Foreign Policy after the Nuclear Agreement Politics of Normalizers and Traditionalists. Ankara: Springer, 2019.
• Rubin, Uzi. “The Global Range of Iran’s Ballistic Missile Program.” Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs 5, no. 26 (2006): 62–7.
• Rumelili, Bahar. Conflict Resolution and Ontological Security. New York: Routledge, 2015.
• Schelling, Thomas C. Arms and Influence: With a New Preface and Afterword. Yale: Yale University Press, 1966.
• Shaffer, Brenda. “If Iran is Not Checked, Nuclear Terror is next: America Needs a Plan.” Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs August 9, 2004. https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/if-iran-not-checked-nuclear-terror-next-america-needs-plan.
• Sheikhi, Marjohn. “Iran Missile Attacks Killed over 170 Terrorists in Deir Ezzor.” Mehr News Agency, June 22, 2017. https://en.mehrnews.com/news/126101/Iran-missile-attacks-killed-over-170-terrorists-in-Deir-Ezzor.
• Sisk, Richard. “Iran Makes Show of Drone Wreckage after Trump Calls off Retaliatory Strike.” Military Com, June 21, 2019. https://www.military.com/daily-news/2019/06/21/iran-makes-show-drone-wreckage-after-trump-calls-retaliatory-strike.html.
• Skey, Michael. “A Sense of Where You Belong in the World: National Belonging, Ontological Security and the Status of Ethic Majority in England.” Nations and Nationalism 16, no. 4 (2010): 715–33.
• Steele, Brent J. “Ideals were Really Never in Our Possession; Torture, Honor and Us: Identity.” International Relation 22, no. 2 (2008): 243–61.
• –––. Ontological Security in International Relations: Self-Identity and the IR State (New International Relations). New York: Routledge, 2008a.
• –––. “Welcome Home! Routines, Ontological Insecurity and the Politics of US Military Reunion Videos.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 32, no. 3 (2019): 322–43.
• Subotic, Jelena. “Narrative, Ontological Security, and Foreign Policy Change.” Foreign Policy Analysis 12, no. 4 (2016): 610–27.
• Tabatabai, Ariane M., and Colin P. Clarke. “Iran’s Proxies are More Powerful than Ever.” The RAND Corporation, October 16, 2019. https://www.rand.org/blog/2019/10/irans-proxies-are-more-powerful-than-ever.html .
• Treverton, Gregory F. “The 2007 National Intelligence Estimate on Iran's Nuclear Intentions and Capabilities.” Center for Study of International, May 2, 2013.
• https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/csi-intelligence-and-policy-monographs/pdfs/support-to-policymakers-2007-nie.pdf .
• Wendt, Alexander. “Collective Identity Formation and the International State.” American Political Science Review 88, no. 2 (1994): 384–96.
• Wittes, Tamara C. How Israelis and Palestinians Negotiate: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Oslo Peace Process. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2005.
• Yari, Ehsan. “Geopolitical Requirements and Strategic Requirements of the Islamic Republic of Iran’s Missile Program in the Anarchic Environment of the International System.” Scientific Journal of Security Horizons 12, no. 42 (2019): 38–61.
• Zarakol, Ayşe. “Ontological (in)security and State Denial of Historical Crimes: Turkey and Japan.” International Relations 24, no. 1 (2010): 3–23.
• Zarakol, Ayşe. “States and Ontological Security: A Historical Rethinking.” Cooperation and Conflict 52, no. 1 (2017): 48–68.
• Zarif, Mohammad Javad. “Defense of Mohammad Javad Zarif of Iran’s Missile Program.” Pars Today, February 3, 2017. http://parstoday.com/fa/iran-i54019.