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The Anthropology of Thievery: The Material and Behavioral Background of the “Tolerated Theft” among Hunter-Gatherers

Year 2016, Issue: 31, 23 - 50, 30.06.2016
https://doi.org/10.1501/antro_0000000325

Abstract

This article aims to demonstrate the behavioral patterns and cultural-ecological grounds on which tolerated theft raised as a legitimate practice within the context of resource distribution. Consideration of the main findings of recent studies in the field in combination with the predictions of the dialectic materialism allows us to suggest that both tolerated theft and archaic forms of “public good” status were emerged under the similar material conditions. Based on the law of diminishing marginal utility, it is argued that theft is tolerated when it is concerned with the optimality of food sharing in small-scale groups. We then suggest that this is true especially for the groups of which their survival is highly dependent on a single resource. Among hunter-gatherers, meat of big games representing staple resource of subsistence is valued in a way that it is shared “equally” among group members including those who did not participate in its acquisition. It can therefore be assumed that existing level of the productive forces entails some behavioral pattern like tolerated theft that make acquirers unable to control the distribution of certain food items. Such food items are then treated as “partial public goods” for the group. Examination of the tolerated theft practice in hunter-gatherers also shows us the followings: These small-sized and less complex communities lacking centralized political organisations have a good knowledge of distribution of the staples without falling into conflict. Their subsistence system principally operates to serve “sharing” rather than storage. Thus, they have survived for thousands of years within an equilibrium mix of hunters and scroungers produced by the evolutionary process

References

  • Bliege Bird, R.L ve Bird, D.W. (1997) “Delayed Reciprocity and Tolerated Theft: The Behavioral Ecology of Food-Sharing Strategies”, Current Anthropology, 38 (1), 49-78.
  • Blurton Jones, N.G. (1984)“A Selfish Origin for Human Food Sharing: Tolerated Theft”, Ethology and Sociobiology, 5 (1), 1-3.
  • Bowles, S. ve Choi, J-K. (2013) “Coevolution of farming and private property during the early Holocene”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS), 110 (22), 8830-8835.
  • Cosmides, L. (1989) “The logic of social exchange: Has natural selection shaped humans reason? Studies with the Wason selection task”, Cognition, (31), 187- 276.
  • Gurven, M. (2004) “Reciprocal altruism and food sharing decisions among Hiwi and Aché hunter-gatherers”, Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, (56), 366-380.
  • Hawkes, K. (1993) “Why Hunter-Gatherers Work: An Ancient Version of the Problem of Public Goods”, Current Anthropology, 34 (4), 341-361.
  • Hawkes, K. ve Bliege Bird, R.L. (2002) “Showing Off, Handicap Signaling, and the Evolution of Men’s Work”, Evolutionary Anthropology, (11), 58–67.
  • Henshilwood, C.S., d’Errico, F., Yates, R., Jacobs, Z., Tribolo, C., Duller, G.A.T., Mercier, N., Sealy, J.C., Valladas, H., Watts, I. ve Wintle, A.G. (2002) “Emergence of Modern Human Behavior: Middle Stone Age Engravings from South Africa”, Science, (295), 1278-1280.
  • Henshilwood, C.S. ve Marean, C.W. (2003) “The Origin of Modern Human Behavior”, Current Anthropology, 44 (5), 627-651.
  • Holmberg, A.R. (1950) Nomads of the Long Bow: The Siriono of Eastern Bolivia, Washington: Smithsonian.
  • İbn Haldun (1989) Mukaddime (Cilt-I, II), (Z. K. Ugan, Çev.). İstanbul: MEB.
  • Isaac, G. (1978) “The Food-Sharing Behavior of Protohuman Hominids”, Readings from Scientific American: Human Ancestors, San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company, 110-123.
  • Jaeggi, A.V. ve van Schaik, C.P. (2011) “The evolution of food sharing in primates”, Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, (65), 2125-2140.
  • Kaplan, H. ve Gurven, M. (2005) “The Natural History of Human Food Sharing and Cooperation: A Review and a New Multi-Individual Approach to the Negotiation of Norms”, Moral Sentiments and Material Interests: The Foundations of Cooperation in Economic Life, H. Gintis, S. Bowles, R. Boyd ve E. Fehr (Eds.). Cambridge: MIT Press, 75-114.
  • Katz, E. ve Rosenberg, J. (2001) Property rights, theft, and efficiency: The Biblical Waiver of Fines in the Case of Confessed Theft, Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University, Department of Economics, Working Papers No.01/2001.
  • Klein, R.G. (1995) “Anatomy, Behavior, and Modern Human Origins”, Journal of World Prehistory, 9 (2), 167-198.
  • Marx, K. ve Engels, F. (2013) Alman İdeolojisi (2. Basım), (T. Ok ve O. Geridönmez, Çev.). İstanbul: Evrensel.
  • Morgan, L.H. (1994) Eski Toplum (Cilt-I), (Ü. Oskay, Çev.). İstanbul: Payel.
  • Olson, M. (2002) The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.
  • Orr, H.A. (2009) “Fitness and its role in evolutionary genetics”, Nature Reviews Genetics, 10 (8), 531-539.
  • Sahlins, M. (2010) Taş Devri Ekonomisi, (T. Doğan ve Ş. Özgün, Çev.). İstanbul: bgst.
  • Schiefenhövel, W. (2014) “On the human ethology of food sharing”, Anthropological Review, 77 (3), 355-370.
  • Steward, J.H. (1958) Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution (2nd printing), Urbana: University of Illinois.
  • Sutton, M.Q. ve Anderson, E.N. (2010) Introduction to Cultural Ecology (2nd Edition), Lanham: Altamira.
  • Vickery, W.L., Giraldeau, L-A., Templeton, J.J., Kramer, D.L. ve Chapman, C.A. (1991) “Producers, Scroungers, and Group Foraging”, The American Naturalist, 137 (6), 847-863.
  • Wilson, D.S. (1998) “Hunting, Sharing, and Multilevel Selection: The Tolerated- Theft Model Revisited”, Current Anthropology, 39 (1), 73-97.
  • Winterhalder, B. (1996) “A Marginal Model of Tolerated Theft”, Ethology and Sociobiology, 17 (1), 37-53.
  • Woodburn, J. (1982) “Egalitarian Societies”, Man, 17 (3), 431-451.

Çalmanın Antropolojisi: Avcı-Toplayıcılardaki “Hoşgörülen Hırsızlık” Pratiğinin Maddi ve Davranışsal Arka Planı

Year 2016, Issue: 31, 23 - 50, 30.06.2016
https://doi.org/10.1501/antro_0000000325

Abstract

Bu çalışma, hoşgörülen hırsızlığın kaynak dağılımı bağlamında meşru bir pratik olarak üzerinde yükseldiği kültürel-ekolojik temelleri ve davranış örüntülerini göstermeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu alandaki son çalışmalarda yer alan başlıca bulguların diyalektik materyalizmin öngörüleriyle birleştirilerek değerlendirilmesi, hem hoşgörülen hırsızlığın hem de “kamu malı” statüsünün arkaik formlarının benzer maddi koşullar altında ortaya çıktığını ileri sürmemizi olanaklı kılmaktadır. Azalan marjinal fayda yasasına dayanılarak, hırsızlığın küçük ölçekli gruplardaki gıda paylaşımının uygunluk düzeyi ile ilgili olduğu durumlarda hoşgörüldüğü ileri sürülmüştür. Öyleyse bu durumun özellikle bekaları büyük ölçüde tek bir kaynağa bağımlı gruplar için geçerli olduğunu düşünebiliriz. Avcı-toplayıcılarda temel geçim kaynağını temsil eden büyük av hayvanlarının etine, tedarike katılmayanlar dahil grup üyeleri arasında “eşit” olarak paylaşılacak şekilde değer atfedilir. Dolayısıyla üretici güçlerin bulunduğu aşamanın, tedarikçileri belirli gıdaların dağıtımını kontrol etmekten alıkoyan, hoşgörülen hırsızlık gibi bir dizi davranış örüntüsünü koşullandırdığı varsayılabilir. Öyleyse bu gibi gıda maddeleri grup için “kısmi kamu malı” muamelesi görecektir. Avcı-toplayıcılardaki hoşgörülen hırsızlık pratiğinin incelenmesi bize şunları da göstermiştir: Merkezileşmiş bir siyasal örgütlenmesi bulunmayan bu küçük ve karmaşıklık derecesi düşük topluluklar, temel kaynakların çatışmasız olarak dağıtımı konusunda iyi bir bilgiye sahiptirler. Geçim sistemleri ilkesel olarak depolamadan çok paylaşıma hizmet eder şekilde çalışır. Bu sayede evrimsel sürecin ürettiği avcı-hırsız dengesi içerisinde binlerce yıldan beri ayakta kalmayı başarabilmişlerdir

References

  • Bliege Bird, R.L ve Bird, D.W. (1997) “Delayed Reciprocity and Tolerated Theft: The Behavioral Ecology of Food-Sharing Strategies”, Current Anthropology, 38 (1), 49-78.
  • Blurton Jones, N.G. (1984)“A Selfish Origin for Human Food Sharing: Tolerated Theft”, Ethology and Sociobiology, 5 (1), 1-3.
  • Bowles, S. ve Choi, J-K. (2013) “Coevolution of farming and private property during the early Holocene”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS), 110 (22), 8830-8835.
  • Cosmides, L. (1989) “The logic of social exchange: Has natural selection shaped humans reason? Studies with the Wason selection task”, Cognition, (31), 187- 276.
  • Gurven, M. (2004) “Reciprocal altruism and food sharing decisions among Hiwi and Aché hunter-gatherers”, Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, (56), 366-380.
  • Hawkes, K. (1993) “Why Hunter-Gatherers Work: An Ancient Version of the Problem of Public Goods”, Current Anthropology, 34 (4), 341-361.
  • Hawkes, K. ve Bliege Bird, R.L. (2002) “Showing Off, Handicap Signaling, and the Evolution of Men’s Work”, Evolutionary Anthropology, (11), 58–67.
  • Henshilwood, C.S., d’Errico, F., Yates, R., Jacobs, Z., Tribolo, C., Duller, G.A.T., Mercier, N., Sealy, J.C., Valladas, H., Watts, I. ve Wintle, A.G. (2002) “Emergence of Modern Human Behavior: Middle Stone Age Engravings from South Africa”, Science, (295), 1278-1280.
  • Henshilwood, C.S. ve Marean, C.W. (2003) “The Origin of Modern Human Behavior”, Current Anthropology, 44 (5), 627-651.
  • Holmberg, A.R. (1950) Nomads of the Long Bow: The Siriono of Eastern Bolivia, Washington: Smithsonian.
  • İbn Haldun (1989) Mukaddime (Cilt-I, II), (Z. K. Ugan, Çev.). İstanbul: MEB.
  • Isaac, G. (1978) “The Food-Sharing Behavior of Protohuman Hominids”, Readings from Scientific American: Human Ancestors, San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company, 110-123.
  • Jaeggi, A.V. ve van Schaik, C.P. (2011) “The evolution of food sharing in primates”, Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, (65), 2125-2140.
  • Kaplan, H. ve Gurven, M. (2005) “The Natural History of Human Food Sharing and Cooperation: A Review and a New Multi-Individual Approach to the Negotiation of Norms”, Moral Sentiments and Material Interests: The Foundations of Cooperation in Economic Life, H. Gintis, S. Bowles, R. Boyd ve E. Fehr (Eds.). Cambridge: MIT Press, 75-114.
  • Katz, E. ve Rosenberg, J. (2001) Property rights, theft, and efficiency: The Biblical Waiver of Fines in the Case of Confessed Theft, Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University, Department of Economics, Working Papers No.01/2001.
  • Klein, R.G. (1995) “Anatomy, Behavior, and Modern Human Origins”, Journal of World Prehistory, 9 (2), 167-198.
  • Marx, K. ve Engels, F. (2013) Alman İdeolojisi (2. Basım), (T. Ok ve O. Geridönmez, Çev.). İstanbul: Evrensel.
  • Morgan, L.H. (1994) Eski Toplum (Cilt-I), (Ü. Oskay, Çev.). İstanbul: Payel.
  • Olson, M. (2002) The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.
  • Orr, H.A. (2009) “Fitness and its role in evolutionary genetics”, Nature Reviews Genetics, 10 (8), 531-539.
  • Sahlins, M. (2010) Taş Devri Ekonomisi, (T. Doğan ve Ş. Özgün, Çev.). İstanbul: bgst.
  • Schiefenhövel, W. (2014) “On the human ethology of food sharing”, Anthropological Review, 77 (3), 355-370.
  • Steward, J.H. (1958) Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution (2nd printing), Urbana: University of Illinois.
  • Sutton, M.Q. ve Anderson, E.N. (2010) Introduction to Cultural Ecology (2nd Edition), Lanham: Altamira.
  • Vickery, W.L., Giraldeau, L-A., Templeton, J.J., Kramer, D.L. ve Chapman, C.A. (1991) “Producers, Scroungers, and Group Foraging”, The American Naturalist, 137 (6), 847-863.
  • Wilson, D.S. (1998) “Hunting, Sharing, and Multilevel Selection: The Tolerated- Theft Model Revisited”, Current Anthropology, 39 (1), 73-97.
  • Winterhalder, B. (1996) “A Marginal Model of Tolerated Theft”, Ethology and Sociobiology, 17 (1), 37-53.
  • Woodburn, J. (1982) “Egalitarian Societies”, Man, 17 (3), 431-451.
There are 28 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Anthropology
Other ID JA56JV82TG
Journal Section Review Articles
Authors

Muhsin Altun

Publication Date June 30, 2016
Submission Date November 25, 2015
Acceptance Date April 25, 2016
Published in Issue Year 2016 Issue: 31

Cite

APA Altun, M. (2016). Çalmanın Antropolojisi: Avcı-Toplayıcılardaki “Hoşgörülen Hırsızlık” Pratiğinin Maddi ve Davranışsal Arka Planı. Antropoloji(31), 23-50. https://doi.org/10.1501/antro_0000000325

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