Terörizm Araştırmalarında Devlet Merkezliliğin Bir Sonucu Olarak Devlet Terörizmine Yönelik Sessizlikler

Year 2022, , 106 - 141, 28.02.2022

Ömer Çona

https://doi.org/10.53376/ap.2022.04

Abstract

Bu çalışmada geleneksel terörizm çalışmalarının epistemolojik, ontolojik ve metodolojik yaklaşımlarına eleştirel bir analiz getirilerek, terörizm araştırmalarında devlet terörizmi konusuna yönelik noksanlıkların nedenlerini belirlemek amaçlanmıştır. Makalede araştırmacıların devlet terörizmini görmezden gelerek, devlet dışı aktörlerden kaynaklanan şiddete odaklanmasının gerekçesinin devlet merkezli tutum olduğu, bu tutumun da altı nedenden kaynaklandığı sonucuna varılmıştır. Çalışmada bunlar şu şekilde ortaya konulmuştur; terörizm çalışmalarının ortaya çıkış süreci, geleneksel güvenlik çalışmalarının etkisi, araştırmacıların tarafsızlık sorunları, meseleye yönelik problem çözücü yaklaşımlar, şiddetin meşruluğu üzerine devlet ile devlet dışı aktör ayrışması ve akademik özgürlüklerin sınırlılığı. Bu bağlamda ana akım terörizm araştırmalarına tepki olarak doğan Eleştirel Terörizm Çalışmaları’nın disiplindeki ortodoksiye ilişkin yaklaşımları temel alınarak, okuyucuya bir literatür analizi sunulmaya çalışılmıştır.

Keywords

Devlet Terörizmi, Devlet Dışı Aktörler, Eleştirel Terörizm Çalışmaları, Geleneksel Terörizm Araştırmaları, Devlet Merkezlilik

Silence Against State Terrorism as a Result of State Centrism in Terrorism Research

Abstract

In this study, it is aimed to determine the reasons for the deficiencies in the subject of state terrorism in terrorism research by bringing a critical analysis to the epistemological, ontological and methodological approaches of traditional terrorism studies. In the article, it is concluded that the reason for the researchers to ignore state terrorism and focus on violence originating from non-state actors is the state-centered attitude, and this attitude stems from six reasons. In the study, these were revealed as follows; The emergence process of terrorism studies, the effect of traditional security studies, the impartiality problems of researchers, problem-solving approaches to the issue, the separation of state and non-state actors on the legitimacy of violence, and the limitation of academic freedoms. In this context, it is aimed to present a literature analysis to the reader, based on the approaches to orthodoxy in the discipline of Critical Terrorism Studies, which emerged as a reaction to mainstream terrorism studies.

Keywords

State Terrorism, Non-State Actors, Critical Terrorism Studies, Traditional Terrorism Studies, State Centrism

References

• Açıkmeşe, Sinem Akgül (2014), “Güvenlik, Güvenlik Çalışmaları ve Güvenlikleştirme”, Balta, Evren (Der.), Küresel Siyasete Giriş, (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları): 241-256.
• Afxentiou, Afxentis (2018), The Politics and Ethics of Drone Bombing in its Historical Context (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi) (Brighton: University of Brighton).
• Agamben, Giorgio (2020), Kutsal İnsan: Egemen İktidar ve Çıplak Beden (İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları) (Çev. İsmail Türkmen).
• Aksan, Cihan ve John Bailes (2014), “Giriş”, Aksan, Cihan ve Jonh Bailes (Haz.), Güçlünün Silahı: Amerikan Devlet Terörü Üzerine Söyleşiler (İstanbul: Metis) (Çev. Serap Arslanpay): 11-44.
• Assumpção, Clara (2019), “A Critical Analysis of The Exclusion of the State in Terrorism Studies”, https://www.e-ir.info/2019/10/23/a-critical-analysis-of-the-exclusion-of-the-state-in-terrorism-studies/ (20.11.2021).
• Avcı, Engin ve Cenker Korhan Demir (2017), “Terörizm Çalışmaları: Türkiye’deki Araştırmalara İlişkin Betimsel Bir Analiz”, Güvenlik Stratejileri Dergisi, 13 (26): 1-44.
• Baylis John, Steve Smith ve Patricia Owens (2021), Küreselleşen Dünya Siyaseti: Uluslararası İlişkilere Giriş (İstanbul: Küre Yayınları).
• Beyribey, Tuncer (2021), Türkiye’de Terörle Mücadelenin Biyopolitikası ve Mediko-Politik Metaforlar (1973-1991) (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi) (İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi).
• Blakeley, Ruth (2007), “Bringing the State Back into Terrorism Studies”, European Political Science, 6 (3): 228-235.
• Blakeley, Ruth (2008), “The Elephant in the Room: A Response to John Horgan and Michael Boyle”, Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1 (2): 151-165.
• Blakeley, Ruth (2009), State Terrorism and Neoliberalism (New York: Routledge).
• Blakeley, Ruth (2010), “State Terrorism in the Social Sciences: Theories, Methods and Concepts”, Jackson, Richard, Eamon Murphy ve Scott Poynting (Der.) Contemporary State Terrorism: Theory and Practice (Abingdon: Routledge): 12-27.
• Blakeley, Ruth (2012), “State Violence as State Terrorism”, Breen-Smyth, Marie (Der.), The Ashgate Research Companion to Political Violence (London: Routledge): 63-78.
• Blakeley, Ruth ve Raphael Sam (2016), “Rendition in the “War on Terror”, Jackson, Richard (Der.), Routledge Handbook of Critical Terrorism Studies, (Abingdon: Routledge): 383-401.
• Bonditti, Pierre (2017), “Violence and Modern International: An Archaelogy of Terrorism”, Bonditti, Pierre Didier Bigo ve Frank Gros (Der.), Foucault and Modern International (New York: Palgrave Macmillan): 155-173.
• Booth, Ken (2012), Dünya Güvenliği Kuramı (İstanbul: Küre Yayınları) (Çev. Çağdaş Üngör).
• Bowie, Neil G. (2021), “40 Terrorism Databeses and Data Sets: A New Inventory”, Perspectives on Terrorism, 15 (2): 147-161.
• Bushnell, P. Timothy, Shlapentokh, Vladimir, Vanderpool Christopher ve Jeyaratnam Sundram (2019), “State Organized Terror: Tragedy of the Modern State”, P.T. Bushnell, P. Timothy Vladimir, Shlapentokh, Christopher Vanderpool ve Jeyaratnam Sundram (Der.), State Organized Terror: The Case of Violent Internal Repression (Abingdon: Routledge): 3-22.
• Braysher, Neil. (2011), “Sovereign States and State Terrorism”, https://www.e-ir.info/pdf/11687 (20.11.2021).
• Breen-Smyth, Marie (2009), “Subjectivities, ‘Suspect Communities’, Governments, and the Ethics of Research on ‘Terrorism’”, Jackson, Richard, Marie Breen-Smyth ve Jeroen Gunning (Der.), Critical Terrorism Studies: A New Research Agenda (Abingdon: Routledge): 194-215.
• Burnett, Jonny ve Whyte, David (2005), “Embedded Expertise and the New Terrorism”, Journal of Crime, Conflict and Media, 1 (4): 1-18.
• Butler, Judith. (2004), Kırılgan Hayat: Yasın ve Şiddetin Gücü (İstanbul: Metis) (Çev. Başak Ertür)
• Cox, Robert (1981), “Social Forces, States and World Orders: Beyond International Relations Theory”, Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 10 (2): 126-155.
• Çona, Ömer (2022), “Terörizm Çalışmalarında Eleştirel Bir Dönüş: Eleştirel Terörizm Çalışmaları ve Türkiye’deki Terörizm Çalışmalarına Yansımaları”, Terörizm ve Radikalleşme Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1 (1): 153-186.
• Demir, Cenker Korhan (2020), “Stratejinin Bakış Açısıyla Terörizm”, Karaosmanoğlu, Ali L. ve Ersen Aydınlı (Der.), Strateji Düşüncesi: Kuram, Paradoks, Uygulama, (İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları): 283-312.
• Ditrych, Ondrej (2014), Tracing the Discourses of Terrorism Identity, Genealogy and State (London: Palgrave Macmillan).
• Erlenbusch-Anderson, Verena (2018), Genealogies of Terrorism: Revolution, State Violence, Empire (New York: Columbia University Press)
• Espinoza, Marina (2018), “State Terrorism: Orientalism and the Drone Programme”, Critical Studies on Terrorism, 11 (2): 376-393.
• Fitzgerald, James (2016), “Critical Epistemologies of Terrorism”, Jackson, Richard (Der.), Routledge Handbook of Critical Terrorism Studies, (Abingdon: Routledge): 113-135.
• Foucault, Michel (2019), Hapishanenin Doğuşu (Ankara: İmge Kitabevi Yayınları) (Çev. Mehmet Ali Kılıçbay).
• Gunning, Jeroen (2007), “A Case for Critical Terrorism Studies?”, Goverment and Opposition, 42 (3): 363-393.
• Herman, Edward S. ve Gerry Sullivan (1999), “İdeoloji ve Kültür Endüstrisi Olarak Terörizm”, Terörizm Efsanesi (Ankara: Ayraç Yayınevi) (Çev. Bahadır S. Şener): 49-104.
• Herman, Edward S. (2014), “Medyada Terör İmgesi”, Aksan, Cihan ve John Bailes (Haz.), Güçlünün Silahı: Amerikan Devlet Terörü Üzerine Söyleşiler (İstanbul: Metis): 111-125.
• Herring, Eric ve Doug Stokes (2011), “Critical Realism and Historical Materialism as Resources for Critical Terrorism Studies”, Critical Studies on Terrorism, 4 (1): 5-21.
• Hoffman, Bruce (2017), Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press)
• Jackson, Richard (2007a), “The Core Commitments of Critical Terrorism Studies”, European Political Science, 6: 244-251.
• Jackson, Richard (2007b), “Language, Policy and the Construction of a Torture Culture in the War on Terrorism”, Review of International Studies, 33 (3): 353-371.
• Jackson, Richard (2007c), “The Case for a Critical Terrorism Studies”, European Political Science, 6 (3): 1-25.
• Jackson, Richard (2008), “The Ghosts of State Terror: Knowledge, Politics and Terrorism Studies”, Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1 (3): 377-392.
• Jackson, Richard (2009), “Knowledge, Power and Politics in the Study of Political Terrorism”, Jackson, Richard, Marie-Breen Smyth ve Jeroen Gunning (Der.), Critical Terrorism Studies: A New Research Agenda (Abingdon: Routledge): 66-84.
• Jackson, Richard (2011), “In Defence of ‘Terrorism’: Finding a Way Through a Forest of Misconceptions”, Behavorial Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggresssion, 3 (2): 116-130.
• Jackson, Richard (2012), “Unknown Knowns: The Subjugated Knowledge of Terrorism Studies”, Critical Studies on Terrorism, 5 (1): 11-29.
• Jackson, Richard (2014), “Terörizm Araştırmaları ve Akademi”, Aksan, Cihan ve John Bailes (Haz.), Güçlünün Silahı: Amerikan Devlet Terörü Üzerine Söyleşiler (İstanbul: Metis): 136-150.
• Jackson, Richard, Marie Breen-Smyth ve Jeroen Gunning (2009), “Critical Terrorism Studies: Framing a New Research Agenda”, Jackson, Richard, Marie Breen-Smyth ve Jeroen Gunning (Der.), Critical Terrorism Studies: A New Research Agenda (Abingdon: Routledge): 216-236.
• Jackson, Richard, Eamon Murphy ve Scott Poynting (2010), “Introduction: Terrorism, the State and the Study of Political Terror”, Jackson, Richard, Eamon Murphy, Scott Poynting (Der.), Contemporary State Terrorism: Theory and Practice (Abingdon: Routledge): 1-11.
• Jackson, Richard, Lee Jarvis, Jeroen Gunning ve Marie Breen-Smyth (2011), Terrorism: A Critical Introduction (New York: Palgrave Macmillan).
• Jarvis, Lee (2009), “The Spaces and Faces of Critical Terrorism Studies”, Security Dialogue, 40 (1): 5–27.
• Jarvis, Lee (2016), “Critical Terrorism Studies After 9/11”, Jackson, Richard (Der.) Routledge Handbook of Critical Terrorism Studies (Abingdon: Routledge): 68-91.
• Jarvis Lee. ve Michel Lister (2014), “State Terrorism Research And Critical Terrorism Studies: An Assessment”, Critical Studies on Terrorism, 7 (1): 43-61.
• Jones, David Martin ve M.L.R. Smith (2009), “We’re All Terrorist Now: Critical or Hypocritical Studies on Terrorism?”, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 32 (4): 292-302.
• Koncagül, İzzet (2021), “Terörizmin Unutulan Yüzü: Devlet Terörizmi”, Savunma Bilimleri Dergisi, 39: 323-353.
• Laqueur, Walter (2003), No End to War: Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century (New York: Continuum Press).
• Martin, Gus. (2017), Terörizm: Kavramlar ve Kuramlar (İstanbul: Adres Yayınları) (Çev. İhsan Çapcıoğlu ve Bahadır Metin).
• Mearsheimer, John. (2002), “Through the Realist Lens: Conversation with John Mearsheimer by Harry Kreisler (08.04.2002)”, Conversation with History Institute of International Studies, http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Mearsheimer/mearsheimer-con0.html
• Ogunrotifa, A. Bayo (2012), “Research on Terrorism: An Overview of Theoretical Perspectives”, Asian Journal of Research in Social Science & Humanities, 2 (9): 11-27.
• Örki, Armağan, Nurullah Arıkan ve Mehmet Aydın Tol (2021), “International Actorness Status of Terrorist Organizations in Terms of Classical Realism: Their Usage as an Instrument”, İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 10 (3): 2641-2659.
• Özmakas, Utku (2021), Biyopolitika: İktidar ve Direniş (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları)
• Primoratz, Igor (2004), “State Terrorism and Counterterrorism”, Meggle, Georg, Andreas Kemmerling ve Mark Textor (Der.), Ethics of Terrorism & Counter-Terrorism (Berlin: De Gruyter): 69-82.
• Ranstorp, Magnus (2009), “Mapping Terrorism Studies After 9/11: An Academic Field of Old Problems and New Prospects”, Jackson, Richard, Marie Breen-Smyth ve Jeroen Gunning (Der.), Critical Terrorism Studies: A New Research Agenda (Abingdon: Routledge): 13-33.
• Raphael, Sam (2009), “In the Service of Power: Terrorism Studies and US Intervention in the Global South”, Jackson, Richard, Marie Breen-Smyth ve Jeroen Gunning (Der.), Critical Terrorism Studies: A New Research Agenda (Abingdon: Routledge): 49-65.
• Richmond, Oliver. P. ve Franks, Jason (2009), “The Impact of Orthodox Terrorism Discourses on the Liberal Peace: Internalisation, Resistance or Hybridisation?”, Critical Studies on Terrorism, 2 (2): 201-218.
• Rupka, Sean ve Baggiaarini, Bianca (2018), “The (non) Event of State Terror: Drones and Divine Violence”, Critical Studies on Terrorism, 11 (2): 1-15.
• Schmid, Alex. P. ve Albert. J. Jongman, (1988), Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors Authors, Concepts, Data Bases, Theories, & Literature (Amsterdam: Noth-Holland Publishing)
• Schuurman, Bart (2020), Research on Terrorism, 2007-2016: A Review of Data, Methods and Authorship, Terrorism and Political Violence, 32 (5): 1011-1026.
• Silke, Andrew (2001), “The Devil You Know: Continuing Problems with Research on Terrorism”, Terrorism and Political Violence, 13 (4): 1-14.
• Silke, Andrew (2004), “The Road Less Travelled: Recent Trends in Terrorism Research”, Silke, Andrew (Der.), Research on Terrorism: Trends, Achievements and Failures (London: Frank Cass): 186-213.
• Sluka, Jeffrey (2009), “The Contribution of Anthropology to Critical Terrorism Studies”, Jackson, Richard, Marie Breen-Smyth ve Jeroen Gunning (Der.), Critical Terrorism Studies: A New Research Agenda (Abingdon: Routledge): 138-155.
• Smith, Steve (2004), “Singing Our World into Existence: Internaional Relations Theory and September 11”, International Studies Quarterly, V.48: 499-515.
• Sproat, Peter Alan (1991), “Can the State Be Terrorist?”, Terrorism, 14 (1): 19-29.
• Stampnitzky, Lisa (2013), Disciplining Terror: How Experts Invented “Terrorism” (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
• Stohl, Michael (1984), “National Interests and State Terrorism in International Affairs”, Political Science, 36 (1): 37-52.
• Stohl, Michael (1988), “States, Terrorism and State Terrorism: The Role of the Superpowers”, Slatter, Robert O. ve Michael Stohl (Der.), Current Perspective on International Terrorism (London: Palgrave Macmillan).
• Stohl, Michael (2006), “The State as Terrorist: Insights and Implications”, Democracy and Security, 2 (1): 1–25.
• Stohl, Michael (2008), “Old Myths, New Fantasies and the Enduring Realities of Terrorism”, Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1 (1): 5-16.
• Stohl, Michael (2008), “The Global War on Terror and State Terrorism”. Perspectives on Terrorism, 2 (9): 4–10.
• Stohl, Michael (2012), “State Terror: The Theoretical and Practical Utilities and Implications of a Contested Concept”, Jackson, Richard ve Samuel Sinclair (Der.), Contemporary Debates on Terrorism (London: Routledge): 43-50.
• Stump, Jacob L. ve Dixit, Priya (2013), Critical Terrorism Studies: An Introduction to Research Methods (Abingdon: Routledge).
• Taşçıer, Feysel (2008), Siyasal Alanın Belirlenmesinde Şiddetin Rolü Üzerine Üç Görüş: Hannah Arendt, Michel Foucault ve Giorgio Agamben (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi) (Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi).
• Timur, Kasım (2015), Toplumsal Hareket Çalışmaları ve Siyasal Şiddet Analizi: Hamas Örneği (Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi) (Adana: Çukurova Üniversitesi).
• Toros, Harmonie ve Gunning, Jeroen (2009), “Exploring a Critical Theory Approach to Terrorism Studies”, Jackson, Richard, Marie Breen-Smyth ve Jeroen Gunning (Der.), Critical Terrorism Studies: A New Research Agenda, (Abingdon: Routledge): 87-108.
• Wright, Joshua (2019), “State Terrorism: Are Academics Deliberately Ignoring it?”, Journal of Global Faultlines, 6 (2): 204–214.
• Zulaika, Joseba ve William Douglass (1996), Terror and Taboo: The Follies, Fables, and Faces of Terrorism (New York: Routledge).