Şabtilerin Dinî Kökenleri, Fonksiyonları ve Dönüşümü

Year 2024, Volume: 2 Issue: 1, 42 - 76, 30.06.2024

Mukadder Sipahioğlu

Abstract

Shabti, Antik Mısır’da mezarlara koyulan genellikle mumya formundaki figürinler için kullanılan bir kavramdır. Çeşitli malzemelerden yapılan bu figürinler, Orta Krallıktan (MÖ. 1980-1760) Ptolemy döneminin (MÖ. 332-30) sonuna kadar kullanılmıştır. Bugün müzelerde en çok bulunan malzeme gruplarından birini oluşturan shabtilerin, tartışmalı olmakla birlikte Greko-Roman dönemde bile kullanıldığı düşünülmektedir. Oldukça uzun bir kullanım süresi olan figürinler, bu süreçte çeşitli değişimlerden geçmiştir. Bu değişimler figürinlerin hem üslup özellikleri hem de mahiyetleri açısından gerçekleşmiştir. Bir taraftan ölünün kendisini diğer taraftan hizmetkârlarını temsil ettiği düşünülen figürinlerin bu rolleri her zaman eşit düzeyde olmamış, zaman zaman onların ölüyle özdeşleştirilmeleri zaman zaman da hizmetkâr olarak rolleri ön plana çıkmıştır. Mezarlara koyulan hizmetkâr heykellerinin devamı niteliğinde olan figürinlerin mahiyetinde yaşanan bu farklılıklarda coğrafî, siyasî ve ekonomik değişimler etkili olmuştur. Bu nedenle shabtiler, Mısır tarihi boyunca öldükten sonra yaşam inancında karşılaşılan değişimlerin temelinde yatan diğer etkenleri görebilmek adına güzel bir örneklik teşkil etmektedir. Bu yazıda, figürinlerin ilk ortaya çıktığı dönemden, kullanımdan kalkıncaya kadarki süreçte yaşanan coğrafî, siyasî ve ekonomik alanlardaki değişimlerin shabtiler üzerindeki etkisine dair genel bir çerçeve çizilmektedir.

Keywords

Shabti, öldükten sonra yaşam inancı, hizmetkâr/köle, ekonomi

The Impact of Geographical, Political, and Economic Changes on the Afterlife Belief in Ancient Egypt: The Case of Shabtis

Abstract

Shabti is a term used for figurines, often crafted in mummy form, as artifacts of Ancient Egyptian mortuary culture. These figurines span from the Middle Kingdom (1980-1760 BCE) through the end of Ptolemaic period (332-30 BCE). It is claimed to have even persisted into the Greco-Roman epoch although this is controversial. They were fashioned from manifold materials. As one of the most common artifact groups found in museums today, shabtis underwent diverse transformations throughout their long period of use. These transformations affected both the stylistic features and essential character of these figurines. Initially conceived as embodiments of both the deceased and their servants, the role of shabtis oscillated between representing the dead and highlighting their role as servants. The evolution in the character of these servant statues placed in tombs reflects the prevailing geographical, political, and economic tides of their times. Hence, the study of shabtis presents a fascinating example to examine the shifts concerning belief in the afterlife during Egyptian antiquity. This article provides an overview of the impact of geographical, political, and economic changes on shabtis from the time they first appeared until they fell out of use.

Keywords

Shabti, belief in life after death, servant/slave, economy

References

• Assmann, J. (2005). Death and Salvation in Ancient Egypt. (David, Lorton Çev.). Cornell University Press.
• Bakir, Abd el-Mohsen. (1952). Slavery in Pharaonic Egypt. Imprimerie de L’Institut Français D’Archéologie Orientale.
• Birch, S. (1864). On Sepulchral Figures. Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 2, 89-96; 103-105. Bolshakov, A. (2001). Osiris in the Fourth Dynasty Again? The False Door of Jntj, MFA 31.781. Györy, H. (Ed.), Mélanges Offerts à Edith Varga (s. 65-80). Musée Hongrois des Beaux-Arts.
• Borchardt, L. (1894). Einiges Über Die Todtenstatuetten. Zeitschrift Für Ägyptische Sprache Und Altertumskunde, 34, 111-117.
• Bowman, A. K. & Rogan, E. (1999). Agriculture in Egypt from Pharaonic to Modern Times. Bowman, A. K. & Rogan, E. (Ed.), Agriculture in Egypt from Pharaonic to Modern Times (s.1-32). The British Academy.
• Breasted, J. H. (1948). Egyptian Servant Statues. Pantheon Books.
• British Museum (1911). Hieroglyphic texts from Egyptian stelae & c. in the British Museum. Part I. Order of the Trustees.
• Brown, N. J. (1994). Who Abolished Corvee Labour in Egypt and Why?. Past & Present, 144, 116-137.
• Butzer, K. W. (1984). Long-Term Nile Flood Variation and Political Discontinuities in Pharaonic Egypt From. Clark, J. Desmond & Brandt, Steven A. (Ed.), From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa (102-112). University of California Press.
• Butzer, K. W. (2012). Collapse, environment, and society. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 6 (109), 3632-3639.
• Campbell, R. A. (2019). Kill Thy Neighbor: Violence, Power, and Human Sacrifice in Ancient Egypt. [Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi]. University of California.
• Černý, J. (1937). Restitution of, and Penalty Attaching to, Stolen Property in Ramesside Times. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 23 (2), 186-189.
• Černý, J. (1942). Le Caractère Des Oushebtis D’après Les İdées Du Nouvel Empire. BIFAO, 41, 105-133.
• Davies, N. De G. (1902). The Rock Tombs Of Deir El Gebrâwi, Part 1: Tomb Of Aba And Smaller Tombs Of The Southern Group. Gilbert and Revington, Ltd.
• De Buck, A. (1956). The Egyptian Coffin Texts. Vol. VI: Texts of Spells 472-786. The University of Chicago Press.
• Edwards, I. E. S. (1971). Bill Of Sale For A Set Of Ushabtis. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 57, 120-124.
• Eisenstein, J. D. (t.y). Golem. Jewish Encyclopedia, (vol. 6, s. 36-37) https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6777-golem
• Elshiwy, R. (2023). The nbs-tree in Ancient Egypt: Significance and uses. The Scientific Journal of the Faculty of Tourism and Hotels, 20 (1), 1-24.
• Erman, A. (1894). Life in Ancient Egypt. Macmillan and Co.
• Faulkner, R. O. (1977). The Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts. vol. II:Spells 355-787. Aris&Phillips Ltd.
• Galan, J. M. (2000). The Ancient Egyptian Sed-Festival and the Exemption from Corvee. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 59, 255-264.
• Gale, R., Gasson P., Hepper N. (2000). Wood. Nicholson, Paul T. & Shaw, Ian (Ed.), Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology (s. 334-352). Cambridge University Press.
• Gardiner, A. H. (1906). A Statuette of the High Priest of Memphis, Ptahmose. Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 43, 55-59.
• Gardiner, A. H. (2001). Egyptian Grammar: Being An Introduction To The Study Of Hieroglyphs (Third Edition, Revised). Griffith Institute.
• Hall, H. R. (1931). Three Royal Shabtis in the British Museum. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 17 (1/2), 10-12.
• Harmon, A. M. (1960). Lucian. Volume III. The Loeb Classical Library. William Heinemann & Harvard University Press.
• Hornung, E., Krauss R., & Warburton, D. A. (2006). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Brill.
• Howley, K. E. (2019). The materiality of shabtis: Figurines over four millennia. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 30 (1), 1-18.
• Hussein, H. & Ezz el-Din, H. (2023). Symbolism of the Illustrated Images in Some Burial Places of Osiris. Journal of the Faculty of Tourism and Hotels-University of Sadat City, 7 (2/3), 176-200.
• Ikram, S. (2003). Death and Burial in Ancient Egypt. Longman.
• Janes, G. (2002). Shabtis A Private View: Ancient Egyptian Funerary Statuettes In Private European Collections. Cybele.
• Janssen, J. J.(1975). Commodity Prices From The Ramessid Period: An Economic Study Of The Village Of Necropolis Workmen At Thebes. E. J. Brill.
• Junge, F. (2001). Language. The Oxford Encyclopedia Of Ancient Egypt, (vol. 2, s. 258-267). Oxford University Press.
• Martin, G. T. (1986). Shabtis Of Private Persons in The Amarna Period. Mitteilungen Des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo, 42, 109-129.
• Milde, H. (2012). Shabtis. Wendrich, Willeke (Ed.) UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology (s. 1-15). Los Angeles. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6cx744kk
• Miniaci, G. (2010). The İconography Of The Rishi Coffins And The Legacy Of The Late Middle Kingdom. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 46, 49-61.
• Miniaci, G. (2014). The Case Of The Third İntermediate Period ‘Shabti-Maker (?) Of The Amun Domain’ Diamun/Padiamun And The Change In Conception Of Shabti Statuettes. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 100, 245-273.
• Müller-Wollermann, R. (2014). End of the Old Kingdom. Grajetzki, W. & Wendrich, W. (Ed.) UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology (s. 1-9). Los Angeles. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ns3652b
• Nicholson, P. T. (2000). Glass. Nicholson, Paul T. & Shaw, Ian (Ed.), Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology (s. 195-205). Cambridge University Press.
• Northampton, M., Spiegelberg, W.&Newberry, P. E. (1908). Report On Some Excavations In The Theban Necropolis During The Winter Of 1898-9. Archibald Constable and Co. Ltd.
• Olson, S. L. (1996). New Kingdom Funerary Figurines In Context: An Analysis Of The Cemeteries Of Aniba, Gurob, And Soleb. [Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi]. Faculties of the University of Pennsylvania.
• Onderka, P. (2017). Shabtis of Egyptian Officers from the Late Period in the Collections of the Institute of Classical Archaeology in Prague. Studia Hercynia, 21 (1), 79-85.
• Petrie, W. M. F. (1916). Funeral figures in Egypt. Ancient Egypt, IV, 151-162.
• Petrie, W. M. F. (1935). Shabtis: Illustrated By The Egyptian Collection In University College, London With Catalogue Of Figures From Many Other Sources. British School of Egyptian Archaeology.
• Pinch, G. (2019). Mısır Mitolojisi: Eski Mısır Tanrıları, Tanrıçaları Ve Mitleri. (Duru, Ekin Çev.). Say Yayınları.
• Poole, F. (2005). ‘All that has been done to the shabtis’: Some Considerations On The Decree For The Shabtis of Neskhons and P. BM EA 10800. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 91, 165-170.
• Quirke, S. (2013). Going Out In Daylight-Prt M Hrw The Ancient Egptian Book Of Tthe Dead Translation, Sources, Meanings. Golden Horus Publications.
• Raum, B. R. (1978).The Genus Tamarix. The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.
• Roth, A. M. (2002). The Meaning of Menial Labor: “Servant Statues” in Old Kingdom Serdabs. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 39, 103-121.
• Schlögl, H. A. & Brodbeck, A. (1990). Ägyptische Totenfiguren Aus Öffentlichen Und Privaten Sammlungen Der Schweiz. Universitätsverlag Freiburg Schweiz.
• Schlögl, H. A. (1986). Uschebti. Helck, Wolfgang & Otto, Eberhard (Ed.). Lexikon der Ägyptologie (Band VI , s. 896-899). Otto Harrassowitz.
• Schneider, H. D. (1977). Shabtis: An Introduction To The History Of Ancient Egyptian Funerary Statuettes With A Catalogue Of The Collection Of Shabtis İn The National Museum Of Antiquities At Leiden. Rijksmuseum van Oudheden te Leiden.
• Scholem, G. (2007). Golem. Skolnik, Fred (Ed.), Encyclopedia Judaica (2nd edition, vol. 7, s. 735-737).Thomson Gale.
• Shaw, I . (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press.
• Shaw, I. & Nicholson, P. (1995). Ba. The British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt (s. 47). The American Univeristy in Cairo Press.
• Shaw, I. & Nicholson, P. (1995). Crowns and Royal Regalia. The British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt (s. 74). The American Univeristy in Cairo Press.
• Shaw, I. & Nicholson, P. (1995). Ka. The British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt (s. 146). The American Univeristy in Cairo Press.
• Silver, M. (2009). What makes shabti slave?. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 52 (4/5), 619-634.
• Sipahioğlu, M. (2021). Antik Mısır’da Rahip Sınıfı. Ankara Okulu Yayınları.
• Smith, M. (2009). Democratization Of The Afterlife. Dieleman, Jacco & Wendrich, Willeke (Eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology (s. 1-16). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/70g428wj
• Spanel, D. B. (1986). Notes On The Terminology For Funerary Figurines. Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur, 13, 249-253.
• Spanel, D. B. (2001). Funerary Figurines. Redford, Donald B. (Ed.), The Oxford encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt (vol. 1, s. 567-570). Oxford University Press.
• Spell 472 (B2L). (2024, 28 Mart). http://database.mortexvar.com/spell/472
• Stewart, H. M. (1995). Egyptian Shabtis. Shire Publications Ltd.
• Strudwick, N. (2006). Masterpieces of Ancient Egypt. The British Museum Press.
• Tarasenko, M. &Tomorad, M. (2017). The “Shabtis” from the Museum of Oriental Civilizations in Zolochiv Castle, Ukraine. Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur, 46, 257-266.
• Tatomir, R.-G. (2018/19). Shabtiw, Shawabtiw, Ushabtiw İn The Collections Of The “Vasile Pârvan” Institute Of Archaeology İn Bucharest. Dacia, Revue D’archéologie et D’histoire Ancienne, 62/63, 7-116.
• Taylor, J. H. (2001). Death And The Afterlife In Ancient Egypt. British Museum Press.
• Taylor, J. H. (2010). Changes in the afterlife. Wendrich, Willeke (Ed.) Egyptian Archaeology (220-258). Wiley-Blackwell
• Tekdal, H. A. (1998). İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Eski Şark Eserleri Müzesi’nde ve Bazı Özel Koleksiyonlarda Bulunan Keramik Uşeptiler. [Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi]. İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.
• The British Museum. (2024, 5 Nisan). https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA10800 Tomorad, M. (2004). Shabtis from Roman provinces Dalmatia and Pannonia. The Journal of Egyptological Studies, 1, 89-115.
• Tomorad, M. (2006). Shabtis From Roman Provinces Dalmatia And Pannonia And Their Role İn Egyptian Cults During Roman Empire. Györy, Hedvig (Ed.) Aegyptus et Pannonia III: Acta Symposii anno 2004 (s. 279-309). Comité de l'Egypte de l'Egypte Ancienne de l'Association Amicale Hongroise-Egyptienne.
• Tomorad, M. (2011). Shabtis From The Archaeological Museum In Zagreb (Croatia): A Typological Study. Advances in Egyptology, 2, 109-134.
• Tomorad, M. (2014). “Shabtis”-Ancient Egyptian funerary figurines: Classification (typology), findings and role in Ancient Egyptian cults and beliefs during Late and Greco-Roman periods.Lekov, Teodor&Buzov, Emil (Ed.) Cult and Belief in Ancient Egypt: Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress for Young Egyptologists 2012, (s. 139-150). East and West.
• Tomorad, M. (2019). Egyptian Shabtis Discovered In Various Regions Of Europe. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections, 23, 100-126.
• Whelan, P. (2011). Small Yet Perfectly Formed-Some Observations On Theban Stick Shabti Coffins Of The 17th And Early 18th Dynasty, 34, 9-22.
• Wiedemann, A. (1912). Die uschebti-formel Amenophis III. Sphinx: Revue Critique Embrassant le Domaine Entier de L’égyptologie, 16, 33-54.
• Wilkinson, R. H. (2016). Eski Mısır’ın Bütün Tanrı Ve Tanrıçaları. (Yıldırım, Ahmet Fethi Çev.). Alfa Basım Yayım.
• Wilkinson, T. (2019). Eski Mısır: MÖ 3000’den Kleopatra’ya Bir Uygarlığın Tarihi. (Yolsal, Ümit Hüsrev Çev.). Say Yayınları.
• Wilkinson, T. A. H. (1999). Early dynastic Egypt. Routledge.
• Willems, H. (2010). The First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom. Lloyd, A. B. (Ed.), A companion to Ancient Egypt (vol. 1, s. 81-100). Wiley-Blackwell.
• Wilson, P. (2003). Hieroglyphs: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.