Improvement of the Nursery Upweller for Young Oysters in Tropical Mangrove Estuaries

Year 2025, Volume: 40 Issue: 4, 262 - 271, 10.10.2025

Tatsuya Yurimoto , Faizul Mohd Kassim , Masazurah Abdul Rahim

https://doi.org/10.26650/ASE.2025.1738425

Abstract

To streamline oyster aquaculture practices, a compact nursery upweller system for young oysters was developed using commercially available components, based on the principles of conventional forced flow upweller designs. A field experiment was conducted at a commercial oyster farm to evaluate the system’s performance. Young oysters were reared in the improved device, and two control groups were established for comparison: one utilising net cages alone, and another employing net cages with aeration. Growth conditions among the groups were systematically assessed. The experimental results revealed that the improved upweller device significantly enhanced the accumulation of phytopigments in the digestive gland tissue, which was associated with more distinct shell edge formation in a substantial number of individuals. Quantitative analysis of shell length and morphological characteristics indicated a significant promotion of growth in oysters cultured within the device. Although routine cleaning—at least once per week—is necessary in mangrove brackish water environments, the simplified structural design of the device contributes to improved operational efficiency. This integrated and accessible design enables oyster farmers to independently assemble, install, and maintain the system on-site, thereby reducing labour demands and facilitating broader adoption in small-scale aquaculture operations.

Keywords

Oyster , nursery upweller , phytopigments , growth promotion , mangrove estuary

Ethical Statement

The authors affirm that ethical ap¬proval is unnecessary for this study.

Supporting Institution

Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS)

Project Number

JIRCAS grant project (Code No. a1B4, FY2021–2025)

Thanks

We gratefully acknowledge Drs. T. Miyata, R. Nanbu, and S. Yanagihara of JIRCAS for their valuable suggestions and critical input throughout this study.

References

• Baker, S.M. & Mann, R. (1994). Feeding ability during settlement and metamorphosis in the oyster Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin, 1791) and the effects of hypoxia on post-settlement ingestion rates. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 181(2), 239–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0981(94)90131-7 google scholar
• Balch, W.M. (1981). An apparent lunar tidal cycle of phytoplankton blooming and community succession in the Gulf of Maine. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 55(1), 65–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0981(81)90093-9 google scholar
• Barillé, L., Haure, J., Pales-Espinosa, E. & Morancais, M. (2003). Finding new diatoms for intensive rearing of the pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas): energy budget as a selective tool. Aquaculture, 217(1-4), 501–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(02)00257-0 google scholar
• Buzzelli, C., Parker, M., Geiger, S., Wan, Y., Doering, P. & Haunert, D. (2013). Predicting system-scale impacts of oyster clearance on phytoplankton productivity in a google scholar
• small subtropical estuary. Environmental Modeling & Assessment, 18(2), 185– 198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10666-012-9338-y google scholar
• Campbell, M.D. & Hall, S.G. (2019). Hydrodynamic effects on oyster aquaculture systems: a review. Reviews in Aquaculture, 11(3), 896–906. https://doi.org/10. 1111/raq.12271 google scholar
• Campbell, M.D. (2020). The investigation of biological and engineering parameters intrinsic to intensive culture of oysters, Crassostrea virginica, in upweller systems. North Carolina State University ProQuest Dissertations & Theses, 27949970. google scholar
• Carrasco, N., Gairin, I., Perez, J., Andree, K.B., Roque, A., Fernandez-Tejedor, M., Rodgers, C.J., A guilera, C. & Furones, M.D. (2017). A production calendar based on water temperature, spat size, and husbandry practices reduce OsHV-1 μvar impact on cultured Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas in the Ebro Delta (Catalonia), Mediterranean coast of Spain. Frontiers in Physiology, 8, 125. https://doi: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00125 google scholar
• Chessa, G., Serra, S., Saba, S., Manca, S., Chessa, F., Trentadue, M. & Fois, N. (2013). The floating upwelling system (FLUPSY) for breeding of Venerupis decussata (Linnaeus, 1758) juveniles in a coastal lagoon in Sardinia (Italy). Transitional Waters Bulletin, 7(2), 53–61. https://doi.org/10.1285/i1825229Xv7n2p53 google scholar
• Dixon, L.K. (2003). Red tide bloom dynamics with respect to rainfall and riverine flow. Mote Marine Laboratory Technical Report No. 795. https://pinellas.wateratlas. usf.edu/upload/documents/Red_tide_bloom.pdf google scholar
• Doinsing, W.J., Al-Azad, S. & Ransangan, J. (2024). Reproductive biology and spawning pattern of oyster Magallana bilineata in Mengkabong Bay, Sabah, Malaysia. Croatian Journal of Fisheries, 82, 19–32. https://doi.org/10.2478/cjf-2024-0003 google scholar
• Dubuc, A., Baker, R., Marchand, C., Waltham, N.J. & Sheaves, M. (2019). Hypoxia in mangroves: occurrence and impact on valuable tropical fish habitat. Biogeosciences, 16(20), 3959–3976. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-3959-2019 google scholar
• EFSA panel on animal health and welfare (2015). Oyster mortality. EFSA Journal, 13(6), 4122. google scholar
• Forrest, B.M., Keeley, N.B., Hopkins, G.A., Webb, S.C. & Clement, D.M. (2009). Bivalve aquaculture in estuaries: review and synthesis of oyster cultivation effects. Aquaculture, 298(1-2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.09.032 google scholar
• Gedan, K.B., Altieri, A.H., Feller, I., Burrell, R. & Breitburg, D. (2017). Community composition in mangrove ponds with pulsed hypoxic and acidified conditions. Ecosphere, 8(12), e02053. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.2053 google scholar
• Higano J. (2004). Influence of environmental changes in tidal flats on the filtration and respiration of bivalve mollusks. Bulletin of Fisheries Research Agency Japan, Suppl. 1, 33-40. google scholar
• Hwai, A.T.S., Yasin, Z., Nilamani, N., Razalli, N., Syahira, N., Ilias, N., Darif, N.A.M., Jaya-Ram, A., Woo, S.P. & Poh, W.C. (2023). The comparative growth and survival of juvenile tropical oyster (Magallana bilineata) using different intensive nursery systems. International Journal of Aquatic Research and Environmental Studies, 3(2), 69–79. https://injoere.com/wp-content/uploads/ 2024/12/4-5.pdf google scholar
• Jacobsen-Watts, E. (2012). Effects of water source and mixing on phytoplankton dynamics within a tidally influenced system. University of Washington, Friday Harbor Laboratories. https://digital.lib.washington.edu/server/api/ core/bitstreams/e313fc3a-20e5-4fcd-a43e-2f83e182adb0/content google scholar
• King, J.W., Malham, S.K., Skov, M.W., Cotter, E., Latchford, J.W., Culloty, S.C. & Beaumont, A.R. (2006). Growth of Crassostrea gigas spat and juveniles under differing environmental conditions at two sites in Wales. Aquatic Living Resources, 19(3), 289–297. https://doi.org/10.1051/alr:2006030 google scholar
• Krasnow, A., & colleagues. (2025). Interacting effects of environment and cultivation method on biofouling of farmed oysters (Crassostrea virginica). Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 56(2), 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1111/jwas.70012 google scholar
• Laing, I. & Chang, R.M. (1998). Hatchery cultivation of Pacific oyster juveniles using algae produced in outdoor bloom-tanks. Aquaculture International, 6, 303– 315. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009247613664 google scholar
• Leavitt, D. (2010). Shellfish Upweller Nurseries. https://shellfish.ifas.ufl.edu/wp-content/uploads/Leavitt-Upweller-Nursery_2010_corrected.pdf google scholar
• Lewis, J.C. (2021). Effect of wave action, biofouling control, and density on the performance of eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica). [Master’s thesis, Auburn University]. Auburn University ETD Repository. (Total pages: 90) google scholar
• Ma, Y., Wang, W., Gao, F., Yu, C., Feng, Y., Gao, L., Zhou, J., Shi, H., Liu, C., Kong, D., Zhang, X., Li, R., Xie, J. & Xie, J. (2024). Acidification and hypoxia in seawater, and pollutant enrichment in the sediments of Qi’ao Island mangrove wetlands, Pearl River Estuary, China. Ecological Indicators, 158, 111589. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ecolind.2024.111589 google scholar
• Markager, S., Jespersen, A.M., Madsen, T.V., Berdalet, E. & Weisburd, R. (1992). Diel changes in dark respiration in a plankton community. In: Berman, T., Gons, H.J. & Mur, L.R. (eds) The Daily Growth Cycle of Phytoplankton. Developments in Hydrobiology, 76, Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-2805-6_10 google scholar
• Marra, J. & Barber, R.T. (2004). Phytoplankton and heterotrophic respiration in the surface layer of the ocean. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, L09314. https:// doi.org/ 10.1029/2004GL019664 google scholar
• Mattone, C. & Sheaves, M. (2017). Patterns, drivers and implications of dissolved oxygen dynamics in tropical mangrove forests. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 197, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2017.08.028 google scholar
• Nagasoe, S., Suzuki, K., Yurimoto, T., Fuseya, R., Fukao, T., Yamatogi, T., Kimoto, K. & Maeno, Y. (2011a). Clearance effects of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas on the fish-killing algae Chattonella marina and Chattonella antiqua. Aquatic Biology, 11(3), 201–211. https://doi.org/10.3354/ab00295 google scholar
• Nagasoe, S., Yurimoto, T., Suzuki, K., Maeno, Y. & Kimoto, K. (2011b). Effects of hydrogen sulfide on the feeding activity of Manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum. Aquatic Biology, 13(3), 293–302. https://doi.org/10.3354/ab00374 google scholar
• Numaguchi K., (1985). Studies on phaeophytin contained in the digestive diverticula of pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata martensii, as index of feeding of phytoplankton. Bulletin of National Research Institute of Aquaculture, 7, 91–96. google scholar
• Numaguchi K., (2001). Phyto-pigments in the digestive diverticula of juvenile Japanese pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata martensii, as indicator of algal diets feeding. Aquaculture Science, 49, 317–322. https://doi.org/10.2331/suisan.68. 534 google scholar
• Okamura, K., Tanaka, K., Siow, R., Man, A., Kodama, M. & Ichikawa, T. (2010). Spring tide hypoxia with relation to chemical properties of the sediments in the Matang mangrove estuary, Malaysia. Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly: JARQ, 44(3), 325–333. https://doi.org/10.6090/jarq.44.325 google scholar
• Parsons, T.T. & Strickland, J.D.H. (1963) Discussion of spectrophotometric determination of marine-plant pigments, with revised equations for ascertaining chlorophylls and carotenoids. Journal of Marine Research, 21, 155–163. google scholar
• Powell, A. (2022). New sustainable floating nursery for shellfish installed in WA harbor. Pump Industry, https://www.pumpindustry.com.au/new-sustainable-floating-nursery-for-shellfish-installed-in-wa-harbour/ google scholar
• Pumps, J. (2023). The FLUPSY infrastructure set to support WA’s shellfish aquaculture industry, Pump Industry, https://www.pumpindustry.com.au/the-flupsy-infrastructure-set-to-support-was-shellfish-aquaculture-industry/ google scholar
• Ramos, C.D.O., da Silva, F.C., Gray, M., Gomes, C.H.A.D.M., & De Melo, C.M.R. (2022). Effect of water recirculation rate and initial stocking densities on competent larvae and survival of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas in a recirculation aquaculture system. Aquaculture International, 30(4), 2165–2178. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10499-022-00896-6 google scholar
• Roncarati, A., Felici, A., Magi, G.E., Bilandžić, N., & Melotti, P. (2017). Growth and survival of cupped oysters (Crassostrea gigas) during nursery and pregrowing stages in open sea facilities using different stocking densities. Aquacult Int 25, 1777– 1785. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-017-0152-z google scholar
• Sellner, K. G., Doucette, G. J. & Kirkpatrick, G. J. (2003). Harmful algal blooms: Causes, impacts and detection. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, 30(7), 383–406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10295-003-0074-9 google scholar
• Singh, V., Srivastava, R.K. & Bhatt, A.K. (2025). Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality. In: Battling Air and Water Pollution. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-981-96-4375-2_8 google scholar
• Tan, S.H.A., Chang, G.O., Yen, P.K. & Peng, T.C. (2014). Oyster culture in Malaysia: Opportunities and challenges. Journal of Science and Technology in the Tropics, 10(2), 99–108. google scholar
• Tarnecki, A.M., Landry, K. & Rikard, S. (2023). Nursery upweller type has minimal impact on subsequent grow-out of Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica). Frontiers in Aquaculture, 2, 1236346. https://doi.org/10.3389/faquc. 2023.1236346 google scholar
• Xie, Z., Shi, J., Shi, Y., Tu, Z., Hu, M., Yang, C., Deng, Y., Dupont, S., Xu, Z. & Wang, Y. (2023). Physiological responses to salinity change and diel-cycling hypoxia in gills of Hong Kong oyster Crassostrea hongkongensis. Aquaculture, 570, 739443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2023.739443 google scholar
• Yanmar (2012). Launch of full-scale proposal for local fishing industry revitalization solutions using single-seed oyster farming method. Yanmar Co., Ltd. news release, https://www.yanmar.com/jp/news/2012/07/04/864.html google scholar
• Yurimoto, T., Nasu, H., Tobase, N. & Maeno, Y. (2007). Growth, survival and feeding of ark shell Scapharca kagoshimensis with hung and settled culture in Ariake Bay, Japan. Aquaculture Science, 55(4), 535–540. https://doi.org/10. 11233/aquaculturesci1953.55.535 google scholar
• Yurimoto, T., Kassim, F.M., Fuseya, R., Matsuoka, K. & Man, A. (2021). Food availability estimation of the blood cockle, Anadara granosa (Linnaeus, 1758), from the aquaculture grounds of the Selangor Coast, Malaysia. International Journal of Aquatic Biology, 9(2), 88–96. https://doi.org/10.22034/ijab.v9i2.1113 google scholar
• Yurimoto, T., Kassim, F.M. & Rahim, M.A. (2024). Mass mortality event of aquaculture oysters caused by high precipitation in Setiu Lagoon, Peninsular Malaysia, during the wet season. EQA-International Journal of Environmental Quality, 63, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2281-4485/19760 google scholar
• Yurimoto, T., Kassim, F.M. & Rahim, M.A. (2025a). Development of a nursery upweller for young oysters in tropical mangrove estuaries. EQA-International Journal of Environmental Quality, 66, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2281-4485/ 20202 google scholar
• Yurimoto, T., Kassim, F.M. & Rahim, M.A. (2025b). Observation of the Freshwater Inflow Event Using IoT Devices at an Oyster Farm in the Merbok Estuary During Monsoon. Thalassas, 41, 143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41208-025-00901-8 google scholar
• Zorita, I., Juez, A., Solaun, O., Muxika, I. & Rodriguez, J.G. (2021). Stocking density effect on the growth and mortality of juvenile European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis Linnaeus, 1758). Aquaculture, Fish and Fisheries, 1, 60–65. https://doi.org/10. 1002/aff2.18 google scholar