EVALUATION OF COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE IN CHILD FOOTBALL PLAYERS AGED 8-15: A STUDY BASED ON THE STROOP TEST TBAG FORM AND THE CHILDREN’S COLOUR TRAILS TEST

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 18 Sayı: 3, 426 - 442, 23.12.2024

Muhammed Sıddık Çemç , Enes Madak , Özgür Gülen

Öz

This study aims to evaluate the cognitive functions of child football players aged 8-15 in terms of attention, processing speed, and cognitive flexibility. Accordingly, the study included 46 male athletes who played football at sports clubs in Yalova. Additionally, a control group was formed, comprising 60 male volunteer students from elementary and secondary school levels. Participants were administered the Stroop Test TBAG Form and the Children’s Colour Trails Test (CCTT). The data obtained were analyzed using the JASP 0.19 software, and the significance level was set at p<0.05. The findings revealed that child football players had faster completion times on the Stroop Test TBAG Form compared to the control group. However, there was no significant difference between the groups in terms of the number of errors and corrections. Nonetheless, child football players made more errors and corrections on the Stroop Test TBAG Form than the control group. Regarding the results of the Children’s Colour Trails Test (CCTT), football players demonstrated shorter completion times on both forms compared to the control group; however, these differences were not statistically significant. In conclusion, despite the speed advantage observed in child football players on the Stroop Test TBAG Form, the increased number of errors and corrections suggests a potential imbalance between speed and accuracy. Furthermore, the results of the Children’s Colour Trails Test (CCTT) indicate that although football players exhibited higher processing speed, the lack of statistical significance suggests that the speed advantage may not always be evident across different cognitive tasks. Ultimately, it is proposed that intensive physical activities, such as football, may have positive effects on cognitive processing speed.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Cognitive Performance, Football, Neuropsychology

8-15 YAŞ GRUBU ÇOCUK FUTBOLCULARDA BİLİŞSEL PERFORMANSIN DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ: STROOP TESTİ TBAG FORMU VE ÇOCUKLAR İÇİN RENKLİ İZ SÜRME TESTİ TEMELLİ BİR ARAŞTIRMA

Öz

Bu araştırma 8-15 yaş arası çocuk futbolcuların bilişsel fonksiyonlarını; dikkat, işlem hızı ve bilişsel esneklik açısından değerlendirmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu kapsamda çalışmaya Yalova ilinde yer alan spor kulüplerinde futbol oynayan 46 erkek sporcu ile kontrol grubu olarak ilköğretim ve ortaöğretim seviyesinde eğitim alan 60 erkek gönüllü öğrenci dahil edilmiştir. Katılımcılara Stroop Testi TBAG Formu ve Çocuklar İçin Renkli İz Sürme Testi (CCTT) uygulatılmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçların veri analizi işlemleri JASP 0.19 programı kullanılarak tamamlanmıştır. Analizler için anlamlılık düzeyi p<0.05 olarak kabul edilmiştir. Bulgular incelendiğinde çocuk futbolcuların Stroop Testi TBAG Formu üzerinde kontrol grubuna göre daha hızlı tamamlama sürelerine sahip olduğu görülmektedir. Fakat hata ve düzeltme sayısı bakımından gruplar arasında genel olarak anlamlı bir fark bulunmamıştır. Bunun yanında çocuk futbolcuların kontrol grubuna göre Stroop Testi TBAG Formu üzerinde daha fazla hata ve düzeltme uyguladığı gözlemlenmiştir. Çocuklar İçin Renkli İz Sürme Testi (CCTT) sonuçlarına bakıldığında ise, futbolcuların her iki formda da kontrol grubuna göre daha kısa tamamlama sürelerine sahip olduğu görülmektedir. Fakat bu farklar istatistiksel olarak anlamlılık taşımamaktadır. Sonuç olarak Stroop Testi TBAG Formu üzerinde çocuk futbolcuların hız üstünlüğüne rağmen artan hata ve düzeltme sayıları hız ve doğruluk arasında bir denge problemi olabileceğini ortaya koymaktadır. Ayrıca Çocuklar İçin Renkli İz Sürme Testi (CCTT) sonuçlarına göre, futbolcuların işlem hızı yüksek görünse de bu farkın istatistiksel olarak anlamlı olmaması farklı bilişsel görevlerde hız avantajının her zaman belirgin olmadığını göstermektedir. Sonuç olarak, futbol gibi yoğun fiziksel aktivitelerin bilişsel hız üzerinde olumlu etkileri olabileceği düşünülmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Bilişsel Performans, Futbol, Nöropsikoloji

Kaynakça

• Khodaee M., Mathern SA. (2020). Soccer. In sports-related fractures, dislocations and trauma. Springer. 951-953.
• Yaşar O., Sunay H. (2018). Futbol antrenörlerinin iş doyumlarinin ve örgütsel bağliliklarinin incelenmesi. Journal of Human Sciences. 15(2), 952-969.
• Zouita S., Zouita AB., Kebsi W., Dupont G., Abderrahman AB., Salah FZB., Zouhal H. (2016). Strength training reduces injury rate in elite young soccer players during one season. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 30(5), 1295-1307.
• Hewett TE., Myer GD., Ford KR., Heidt Jr RS., Colosimo AJ., McLean SG., Succop P. (2005). Biomechanical measures of neuromuscular control and valgus loading of the knee predict anterior cruciate ligament injury risk in female athletes: a prospective study. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 33(4), 492-501.
• Myer GD., Ford KR., Divine JG., Wall EJ., Kahanov L., Hewett TE. (2009). Longitudinal assessment of noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injury risk factors during maturation in a female athlete: a case report. Journal of Athletic Training. 44(1), 101-109.
• Hawkins RD., Fuller CW. (1999). A prospective epidemiological study of injuries in four english professional football clubs. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 33, 196-203.
• American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Sports Medicine: Recommendations for participation in competitive sports. (1988). Pediatrics. 81(5), 737-739.
• Dewan MC., Mummareddy N., Wellons III JC., Bonfield CM. (2016). Epidemiology of global pediatric traumatic brain injury: Qualitative review. World Neurosurgery. 91, 497-509.
• Tysvaer AT. (1992). Head and neck injuries in soccer: Impact of minor trauma. Sports Medicine. 14:200-213.
• Bangsbo J., Nørregaard L., Thorsø F. (1991). Activity profile of competition soccer. Canadian Journal of Sport Sciences. 16(2), 110–116.
• Pickett W., Streight S., Simpson K., Brison RJ. (2005). Head injuries in youth soccer players presenting to the emergency department. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 39(4), 226–231.
• Kirkendall DT., Jordan SE., Garrett WE. (2001). Heading and head injuries in soccer. Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 31(5), 369–386.
• Delaney JS. (2004). Head injuries presenting to emergency departments in the United States from 1990 to 1999 for ice hockey, soccer, and football. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 14(2), 80–87.
• Sandelin J., Santavirta S., Kiviluoto O. (1985). Acute soccer injuries in Finland in 1980. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 19(1), 30–33.
• Babbs CF. (2001). Biomechanics of heading a soccer ball: implications for player safety. The Scientific World.
• Spiotta AM., Bartsch AJ., Benzel EC. (2012). Heading in soccer: dangerous play?. Neurosurgery. 70(1), 1-11.
• Deprez D., Fransen J., Boone J., Lenoir M., Philippaerts R., Vaeyens R. (2015). Characteristics of high-level youth soccer players: variation by playing position. Journal of Sports Sciences. 33(3), 243–254.
• Quintero LM., Moore JW., Yeager MG., Rowsey K., Olmi DJ., Britton-Slater J., Harper ML., Zezenski LE. (2020). Reducing risk of head injury in youth soccer: An extension of behavioral skills training for heading. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 53(1), 237–248.
• Maher ME., Hutchison M., Cusimano M., Comper P., Schweizer TA. (2014). Concussions and heading in soccer: a review of the evidence of incidence, mechanisms, biomarkers and neurocognitive outcomes. Brain Injury. 28(3), 271–285.
• Dick R., Putukian M., Agel J., Evans TA., Marshall SW. (2007). Descriptive epidemiology of collegiate women's soccer injuries: National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance System, 1988-1989 through 2002-2003. Journal of Athletic Training. 42(2), 278–285.
• Levy ML., Kasasbeh AS., Baird LC., Amene C., Skeen J., Marshall L. (2012). Concussions in soccer: a current understanding. World Neurosurgery. 78(5), 535–544.
• Delaney JS., Lacroix VJ., Leclerc S., Johnston KM. (2002). Concussions among university football and soccer players. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 12(6), 331–338.
• Bey T., Ostick B. (2009). Second impact syndrome. The Western Journal of Emergency Medicine. 10(1), 6–10.
• Montenigro PH., Corp DT., Stein TD., Cantu RC., Stern RA. (2015). Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: historical origins and current perspective. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 11, 309-330.
• McKee AC., Stern RA., Nowinski CJ., Stein TD., Alvarez VE., Daneshvar DH., Lee HS., Wojtowicz SM., Hall G., Baugh CM., Riley DO., Kubilus CA., Cormier KA., Jacobs MA., Martin BR., Abraham CR., Ikezu T., Reichard RR., Wolozin BL., Budson AE., Cantu RC. (2013). The spectrum of disease in chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Brain: A Journal of Neurology. 136(Pt 1), 43–64.
• Matser EJ., Kessels AG., Lezak MD., Jordan BD., Troost J. (1999). Neuropsychological impairment in amateur soccer players. JAMA. 282(10), 971–973.
• Jordan B., Matser J., Zazula T. (1996). Sparring and cognitive functioning in professional boxers. The Physician and Sportsmedicine. 24(5):87-98.
• Matser J., Bijl M., Luytelaar G. (1992). Is amateur boxing dangerous?. De Psycholoog. 12:515-521.
• Matser JT., Kessels AG., Jordan BD., Lezak MD., Troost J. (1998). Chronic traumatic brain injury in professional soccer players. Neurology. 51(3), 791–796.
• Ben-David B., Nguyen L., Van Lieshout P. (2011). Stroop effects in persons with traumatic brain ınjury: Selective attention, speed of processing, or color-naming? A meta-analysis. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. 17(2),354-363.
• Kimberg DY., D’Esposito M., Farah MJ. (1997). Frontal lobes: Cognitive neuropsychological aspects. Behavioural Neurology and Neuropsychology. 409-418.
• Malloy PF., Richardson ED. (1994) Assessment of frontal lobe functions. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 6,399-410.
• Lezak MD., Howieson DB., Bigler ED., Tranel D. (2012). Neuropsychological assessment (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.
• Boll TJ., Berent S., Richards H. (1977). Tactile-perceptual functioning as a factor in general psychological abilities. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 44,535-539.
• Jaffe KM., Fay GC., Polissar NL., Martin KM., Shurtleff HA., Rivara JM. (1993). Severity of pediatric traumatic brain injury and neurobehavioral recovery at one year: a cohort study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 74,87-95.
• Reitan RM. (1955). The relation of the trail making test to organic brain damage. Journal of Consulting Psychology. 19(5),393.
• Reitan RM. (1971). Trail Making Test results for normal and brain-damaged children. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 33,575–581.
• Reynolds CR. (2002). Comprehensive Trail Making Test: Examiner’s Manual. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
• Bayer M. (2013). Yönetici karmaşık dikkat işlevlerini değerlendiren testlerin 8, 9 ve 10 yaş grubu türk çocuklarında güvenilirlik ve geçerlilik çalışmaları. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul Bilim Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. İstanbul.
• Creswell JW., Creswell JD. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. SAGE Publications.
• Faul F., Erdfelder E., Buchner A., Lang AG. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods,.41, 1149-1160.
• Karakaş S., Bekçi B., Doğutepe E., Erzengin ÖU. (2005). Stroop testi performansının elektrofizyolojisi: Olay-ilişkili potansiyeller ve ilişkili beyin haritaları. Klinik Psikiyatri Dergisi. 8(4), 155-171.
• Schmidt JR., Cheesman J. (2005). Dissociating stimulus-stimulus and response-response effects in the Stroop task. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 59(2), 132-138.
• Rebai M., Bernard C., Lannou J. (1997). The Stroop's test evokes a negative brain potential, the N400. The International Journal of Neuroscience. 91(1-2), 85-94.
• Karakas S., Erdogan E., Sak L., Soysal AS., Ulusoy T., Ulusoy IY., Alkan S. (1999). Stroop test TBAG form: standardisation for Turkish culture, reliability and validity. Turkish Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2(2), 75-88.
• Partington JE., Leiter RG. (1949). Partington's pathways test. Psychological Service Center Journal. 1, 11-20.
• Liorente AM., Williams J., Satz P., D’Elia LF. (2003). Children’s Color Trails Test: Professional Manual. Psychological Assessment Resources Inc.
• Messinis L., Aretouli E., Patrikelis P., Malefaki S., Ntoskou-Messini A., Trimmis N., Gourzis P. (2024). Children’s color trails test: Greek normative data and clinical validity in children with traumatic brain injury and attention deficit-Hyperactivity disorder. Applied Neuropsychology: Child. 1-8.
• Shapiro SS., Wilk MB. (1965). An analysis of variance test for normality (complete samples). Biometrika. 52(3/4), 591-611.
• Cohen J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Matser JT., Kessels AG., Lezak MD., Troost J. (2001). A dose-response relation of headers and concussions with cognitive impairment in professional soccer players. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 23(6), 770–774.
• Kirkendall DT., Garrett WE. (2001). Heading in soccer: Integral skill or grounds for cognitive dysfunction?. Journal of Athletic Training. 36(3), 328–333.
• Straume-Naesheim TM., Andersen TE., K Holme IM., McIntosh AS., Dvorak J., Bahr R. (2009). Do minor head impacts in soccer cause concussive injury? A prospective case-control study. Neurosurgery. 64(4), 719–725.
• Chen PY., Chou LS., Hu CJ., Chen HH. (2015). Finite element simulations of brain responses to soccer-heading impacts. In 1st Global Conference on Biomedical Engineering & 9th Asian-Pacific Conference on Medical and Biological Engineering. 118-119. Tainan, Taiwan.
• Withnall C., Shewchenko N., Wonnacott M., Dvorak J. (2005). Effectiveness of headgear in football. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 39 Suppl 1(Suppl 1), i40–i48.
• Prabhu VC., Bailes JE. (2002). Chronic subdural hematoma complicating arachnoid cyst secondary to soccer-related head injury: case report. Neurosurgery. 50(1), 195–198.
• Stemper BD., Pintar FA. (2014). Biomechanics of concussion. Progress in Neurological Surgery. 28, 14–27.
• Kaminski TW., Thompson A., Wahlquist VE., Glutting J. (2020). Self-reported head injury symptoms exacerbated in those with previous concussions following an acute bout of purposeful soccer heading. Research in Sports Medicine. 28(2), 217–230.
• O’Kane JW., Spieker A., Levy MR., Neradilek M., Polissar NL., Schiff MA. (2014). Concussion among female middle-school soccer players. JAMA Pediatrics. 168(3), 258-264.
• Comstock RD., Currie DW., Pierpoint LA., Grubenhoff JA., Fields SK. (2015). An evidence-based discussion of heading the ball and concussions in high school soccer. JAMA Pediatrics. 169(9), 830-837.
• Tysvaer AT., Løchen EA. (1991). Soccer injuries to the brain: a neuropsychologic study of former soccer players. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 19(1), 56-60.
• Downs DS., Abwender D. (2002). Neuropsychological impairment in soccer athletes. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. 42(1), 103.
• Webbe FM., Ochs SR. (2003). Recency and frequency of soccer heading interact to decrease neurocognitive performance. Applied Neuropsychology. 10(1), 31-41.
• Rutherford A., Stephens R., Potter D., Fernie G. (2005). Neuropsychological impairment as a consequence of football (soccer) play and football heading: preliminary analyses and report on university footballers. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 27(3), 299-319.
• Zhang MR., Red SD., Lin AH., Patel SS., Sereno AB. (2013). Evidence of cognitive dysfunction after soccer playing with ball heading using a novel tablet-based approach. Plos One. 8(2), e57364.
• Witol AD., Webbe FM. (2003). Soccer heading frequency predicts neuropsychological deficits. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. 18(4), 397-417.
• Ellemberg D., Leclerc S., Couture S., Daigle, C. (2007). Prolonged neuropsychological impairments following a first concussion in female university soccer athletes. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 17(5), 369-374.
• Cayuela AC., Vila SA., Casas-Baroy JC. (2020). Frontal lobe executive dysfunction in short-term attentional control following a header in women’s soccer. Archivos de Medicina del Deporte. 37(3), 176-182.
• Cente M., Perackova J., Peracek P., Majdan M., Toth I., Mikulic M., Filipcik P. (2023). Association of nonconcussive repetitive head impacts and intense physical activity with levels of phosphorylated Tau181 and total Tau in plasma of young elite soccer players. JAMA Network Open. 6(3), e236101-e236101.
• Rahman RAA., Hanapiah FA., Nikmat AW., Ismail NA., Manaf H. (2019). Postural sway changes during static standing with concurrent task in children with traumatic brain injury. Neurosciences Journal. 24(1), 29-35.
• Janda DH., Bir CA., Cheney AL. (2002). An evaluation of the cumulative concussive effect of soccer heading in the youth population. Injury Control and Safety Promotion. 9(1), 25-31.
• Stephens R., Rutherford A., Potter D., Fernie G. (2005). Neuropsychological impairment as a consequence of football (soccer) play and football heading: a preliminary analysis and report on school students (13–16 years). Child Neuropsychology. 11(6), 513-526.
• Rodrigues AC., Lima MDM., De Souza LC., Furtado C., Marques CE., Gonçalves L., Caramelli P. (2019). No evidence of association between soccer heading and cognitive performance in professional soccer players: cross-sectional results. Frontiers in Neurology. 10, 209.
• Guskiewicz KM., Marshall SW., Broglio SP., Cantu RC., Kirkendall DT. (2002). No evidence of impaired neurocognitive performance in collegiate soccer players. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 30(2), 157-162.
• Putukian M., Echemendia RJ., Mackin S. (2000). The acute neuropsychological effects of heading in soccer: a pilot study. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 10(2), 104-109.
• Straume-Naesheim T., Andersen T., Dvorak J., Bahr R. (2005). Effects of heading exposure and previous concussions on neuropsychological performance among norwegian elite footballers. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 39(suppl 1), i70-i77.
• Kaminski TW., Wikstrom AM., Gutierrez GM., Glutting JJ. (2007). Purposeful heading during a season does not influence cognitive function or balance in female soccer players. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 29(7), 742-751.
• Kaminski TW., Cousino ES., Glutting JJ. (2008). Examining the relationship between purposeful heading in soccer and computerized neuropsychological test performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 79(2), 235-244.