Determination of Total Phenolic Acid Content and Anti-Atherogenic Activity of Oil Obtained from Fresh Arugula (Eruca sativa L.) By Cold-Pressing

Abstract

Cold-pressed oils have attracted great interest due to their high content of bioactive compounds and potential health benefits. This study aims to determine the total phenolic acid content and anti-atherogenic activity of cold-pressed wild arugula (Eruca sativa L.) oil. Total phenolic acid content was analyzed using spectrophotometric and chromatographic methods, while anti-atherogenic activity was evaluated by in vitro tests measuring antioxidant capacity and lipid peroxidation inhibition. The results show that Eruca sativa L. oil contains significant amounts of phenolic acids, which contribute to its antioxidant potential. Furthermore, the oil exhibited promising anti-atherogenic activity, suggesting its potential role in cardiovascular health. These findings highlight the importance of cold-pressed wild arugula oil as a functional food ingredient with potential therapeutic applications.

Keywords

• Eruca sativa L.
• Cold pressed oil
• Phenolic acids
• Anti-atherogenic activity
• Antioxidant potential

References

1. Acar R, Gecgel U, Hamurcu M, Coskun B, Koc N, Ozcan MM. 2016. Some chemical properties, fatty acid composition and mineral contents of Diplotaxis tenuifolia seed and oil. Am J Essent Oil Nat Prod, 4(2): 23–26.
2. Ahmed J, Al-Salman F, Almusallam AS. 2013. Effect of blanching on thermal color degradation kinetics and rheological behavior of rocket (Eruca sativa) puree. J Food Eng, 119: 660–667.
3. Aviram M, Rosenblat M. 2005. Paraoxonases and cardiovascular diseases: Pharmacological and nutritional influences. Curr Opin Lipidol, 16: 393–399.
4. Aviram M, Rosenblat M. 2008. Paraoxonases (PON1, PON2, PON3) analyses in vitro and in vivo in relation to cardiovascular diseases. Methods Mol Biol, 477: 259–276.
5. Azarsız EYS. 2000. Paraoxonase and its clinical importance. Turk J Biochem, 25(3): 109–120.
6. Bayrak A. 2009. Purification of human serum paraoxonase enzyme and investigation of its kinetic properties, endogenous substrates and antioxidant properties. PhD Thesis, Hacettepe University, Health Sciences Institute, Ankara, Türkiye, pp: 186.
7. Bell L, Wagstaff C. 2019. Rocket science: A review of phytochemical and health-related research in Eruca diplotaxis species. Food Chem, 1: 100002.
8. Camps J, Marsillach J, Joven J. 2009. The paraoxonases: Role in human diseases and methodological difficulties in measurement. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci, 46: 83–106.

9. Carey JN, Hama SY, Mohamad NS, Reddy T. 2005. The paraoxonase gene family and atherosclerosis. Free Radic Biol Med, 38: 153–163.
10. Caruso G, Parrella G, Giorgini M, Nicoletti R. 2018. Crop systems, quality and protection of Diplotaxis tenuifolia. Agricult, 8(55): 1–19.
11. Draganov DI, La Du BN. 2004. Pharmacogenetics of paraoxonases: A brief review. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol, 369: 78–88.
12. Durrington BM, Mackness MI. 2001. Paraoxonase and atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 21: 473–475.
13. Garg G, Sharma V. 2014. Eruca sativa (L.): Botanical description, crop improvement, and medicinal properties. J Herb Spice Med Plant, 20: 171–182.
14. Gençer N. 2008. Purification of paraoxonase Q and R isoenzymes and investigation of their affinity to some environmental pollutants. PhD Thesis, Balıkesir University, Institute of Science, Department of Chemistry, Balıkesir, Türkiye, pp: 204.
15. Goswami B, Tayal D, Gupta N, Mallika V. 2009. Paraoxonase: A multifaceted biomolecule. Clin Chim Acta, 410: 1–5.
16. Gözükara G, Altunbaş S, Şimsek O, Sarı O, Buyurgan K, Maltaş AŞ, Sönmez NK, Kaplan M. 2019. Determination of the relationship between spectral reflectance and plant nutrient concentration in arugula (Eruca vesicaria) cultivation. Mediterr Agric Sci, 32: 55–62.
17. Güzel A, Uğur Y, Oner E, Kolaç T. 2025. Comparative analysis of phytochemical content and antioxidants, anti-cholinesterase, anti-atherogenic and molecular docking of Turkish Pelargonium (Pelargonium endlicherianum Fenzl.). South Afr J Bot, 179: 124–133.
18. Jaouad L, Milochevitch C, Khalil A. 2003. PON1 paraoxonase activity is reduced during HDL oxidation and is an indicator of HDL antioxidant capacity. Free Radic Res, 37(1): 77–83.
19. Katsarou D, Omirou M, Liadaki K, Tsikou D, Delis C, Garagounis C, Krokida A, Zambounis A, Papadopoulou KK. 2016. Glucosinolate biosynthesis in Eruca sativa. Plant Physiol Biochem, 109: 452–465.
20. Koubaa M, Driss D, Bouaziz F, Ellouz Ghorbel R, Ellouz Chaabouni S. 2015. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of solvent extract obtained from rocket (Eruca sativa) flowers. Free Radic Antioxid, 5: 5530.
21. Mackness MI, Mackness B, Durrington PN. 2002. Paraoxonase and coronary heart disease. Atheroscler Suppl, 3: 49–51.
22. Ng CJ, Shih DM, Hama SY. 2005. The paraoxonase gene family and atherosclerosis. Free Radic Biol Med, 38: 153–163.
23. Nicoletti R, Raimo F, Miccio G. 2007. Diplotaxis tenuifolia: Biology, production and properties. Eur J Plant Sci Biotechnol, 1(1): 36–43.
24. Richter RJ, Jarvik GP, Furlong CE. 2008. Paraoxonase 1 (PON1) status and substrate hydrolysis. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 235: 1–9.
25. Rizwana H, Alwhibi MS, Khan F, Soliman DA. 2016. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Eruca sativa seeds against pathogenic bacteria and fungi. J Anim Plant Sci, 26: 1859–1871.
26. Sadiq A, Hayat MQ, Mall SM. 2014. Qualitative and quantitative determination of secondary metabolites and antioxidant potential of Eruca sativa. Nat Prod Chem Res, 2: 4172.
27. Shabnam N. 2015. Characterization of polyphenol oxidase enzyme from arugula (Eruca sativa). MSc Thesis, Istanbul Aydin University, Institute of Science, Istanbul, Türkiye, pp: 42.
28. Singleton VL, Rossi JR. 1965. Colorimetry of total phenolics with phosphomolybdic-phosphotungstic acid. Am J Enol Vitic, 16: 14–158.
29. Türkeş C, Beydemir S, Küfrevioğlu ÖI. 2019. In vitro and in silico studies on the toxic effects of antibacterial drugs as human serum paraoxonase 1 inhibitor. Chem Select, 4(33): 9731–9736.
30. Türkeş C, Söyüt H, Beydemir Ş. 2014. Effect of calcium channel blockers on paraoxonase-1 (PON1) activity and oxidative stress. Pharmacol Rep, 66: 74–80.