Effect of Stacking Sequence on the Low-Velocity Impact Behaviour of T300/5208 Carbon/Epoxy Laminates: An Intralaminar Hashin-CDM Based Numerical Study of Eight Configurations

Abstract

Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates are widely preferred in aerospace and transportation structures owing to their high specific strength and stiffness; however, they exhibit a pronounced sensitivity to out-of-plane low-velocity impact (LVI) loads. In this study, the effect of stacking sequence on the LVI response of T300/5208 CFRP laminates was investigated numerically. Eight stacking configurations (L1–L8), all 125 × 75 mm in size, 5 mm thick and consisting of 40 plies, were defined; unidirectional, cross-ply, angle-ply, quasi-isotropic, multidirectional, hybrid and blocked quasi-isotropic architectures were compared at a single controlled energy level. A hemispherical impactor with a mass of 5.5 kg was applied at an initial velocity of 2.468 m/s and an energy of 16.75 J. Numerical solutions were performed in Abaqus/Explicit using SC8R continuum shell elements together with the Hashin initiation criterion and an energy-based continuum damage mechanics (Hashin-CDM) framework; interlaminar separation was deliberately excluded within an intralaminar-only model. The geometry and post-processing were established on the basis of ASTM D7136. The results showed that the stacking sequence produced differences of about 53% in peak contact force, 38% in maximum displacement and 40% in permanently absorbed energy. The highest contact force and the smallest displacement were obtained for the cross-ply L3 (8964 N; 3.507 mm), whereas the lowest force and the largest displacement occurred for the unidirectional L2 (5863 N; 4.836 mm). In terms of permanent energy absorption, the angle-ply L4 reached the highest value (12.081 J). In all configurations, the dominant damage indicator was matrix tension damage (DAMAGEMT), and the damage orientations were consistent with the fiber directions. The results demonstrate that, through an appropriate choice of stacking sequence, the stiffness–energy absorption balance of the laminate under impact can be controlled.

Keywords

• Carbon fiber reinforced polymer
• Low-velocity impact
• Stacking sequence
• Finite element analysis
• Hashin damage model
• Intralaminar damage

Ethical Statement

Since no study was conducted on animals or humans in this research, ethics committee approval was not obtained.

References

1. Abrate, S. (1991). Impact on laminated composite materials. Applied Mechanics Reviews, 44(4), 155–190. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.3119500
2. Abrate, S. (1998). Impact on composite structures. Cambridge University Press.
3. Ait Mohammed, M., & Tarfaoui, M. (2022). A progressive damage modelling of glass/epoxy cylindrical structure subjected to low-velocity impact. Engineering Failure Analysis, 134, Article 106036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2022.106036
4. Albayrak, M., Kaman, M. O., & Bozkurt, İ. (2023). The effect of lamina configuration on low-velocity impact behaviour for glassfiber/rubber curved composites. Journal of Composite Materials, 57(15), 2675–2707. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219983231175864
5. ASTM International. (2012). Standard test method for measuring the damage resistance of a fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composite to a drop-weight impact event (ASTM D7136/D7136M-12). https://doi.org/10.1520/D7136_D7136M-12
6. Belytschko, T., Lin, J. I., & Tsay, C. S. (1984). Explicit algorithms for the nonlinear dynamics of shells. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 42(2), 225–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/0045-7825(84)90026-4
7. Camanho, P. P., Davila, C. G., & de Moura, M. F. (2003). Numerical simulation of mixed-mode progressive delamination in composite materials. Journal of Composite Materials, 37(16), 1415–1438. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998303034505
8. Caminero, M. A., García-Moreno, I., & Rodríguez, G. P. (2018). Experimental study of the influence of thickness and ply-stacking sequence on the compression after impact strength of carbon fibre reinforced epoxy laminates. Polymer Testing, 66, 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2018.02.009

9. Cao, H., Ma, M., Jiang, M., Sun, L., Zhang, L., Jia, L., Tian, A., & Liang, J. (2020). Experimental investigation of impactor diameter effect on low-velocity impact response of CFRP laminates in a drop-weight impact event. Materials, 13(18), Article 4131. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13184131
10. Dağ, T., Güvenç, M. A., & Uyaner, M. (2024). Low velocity impact behavior of curved composite panels reinforced with different types of stiffeners used in air vehicle. Journal of Materials and Mechatronics: A, 5(1), 117–129. https://doi.org/10.55546/jmm.1459415
11. Davies, G. A. O., & Olsson, R. (2004). Impact on composite structures. The Aeronautical Journal, 108(1089), 541–563. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0001924000000385
12. Ferreira, L. M., Coelho, C. A. C. P., & Reis, P. N. B. (2023a). Numerical simulations of the low-velocity impact response of semicylindrical woven composite shells. Materials, 16(9), Article 3442. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16093442
13. Ferreira, L. M., Coelho, C. A. C. P., & Reis, P. N. B. (2023b). Effect of cohesive properties on low-velocity impact simulations of woven composite shells. Applied Sciences, 13(12), Article 6948. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13126948
14. Ferreira, L. M., Muñoz-Reja, M., & Reis, P. N. B. (2024). Impact response of semicylindrical woven composite shells: The effect of stacking sequence. International Journal of Impact Engineering, 189, Article 104952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2024.104952
15. Ghelli, D., & Minak, G. (2011). Low velocity impact and compression after impact tests on thin carbon/epoxy laminates. Composites Part B: Engineering, 42(7), 2067–2079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2011.04.017
16. Gómez-del Río, T., Zaera, R., Barbero, E., & Navarro, C. (2005). Damage in CFRPs due to low velocity impact at low temperature. Composites Part B: Engineering, 36(1), 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2004.04.003
17. Gök, O. (2026). Effect of curvature height on the low-velocity impact behaviour of unidirectional T300/5208 CFRP laminated shell panels: A comparative numerical parametric analysis of intralaminar + interlaminar and intralaminar-only models. Polymers, 18(11), Article 1290. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111290
18. Guo, S., Li, X., Liu, T., Bu, G., & Bai, J. (2022). Parametric study on low-velocity impact (LVI) damage and compression after impact (CAI) strength of composite laminates. Polymers, 14(23), Article 5200. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235200
19. Han, L., Qi, H., Yang, J., Chu, F., Lin, C., Liu, P., & Zhang, Q. (2024). Study on the low-velocity impact response and damage mechanisms of thermoplastic composites. Polymers, 16(6), Article 791. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16060791
20. Hashin, Z. (1980). Failure criteria for unidirectional fiber composites. Journal of Applied Mechanics, 47(2), 329–334. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.3153664
21. Hongkarnjanakul, N., Bouvet, C., & Rivallant, S. (2013). Validation of low velocity impact modelling on different stacking sequences of CFRP laminates and influence of fibre failure. Composite Structures, 106, 549–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2013.07.008
22. Huang, L., Tao, Y., Sun, J., Zhang, D., & Zhao, J. (2023). Assessment of numerical modeling approaches for thin composite laminates under low-velocity impact. Thin-Walled Structures, 191, Article 111053. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2023.111053
23. Krueger, R. (2005). Computational fracture mechanics for composites: State of the art and challenges (NASA/TM-2005-213530). NASA Langley Research Center.
24. Lapczyk, I., & Hurtado, J. A. (2007). Progressive damage modeling in fiber-reinforced materials. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 38(11), 2333–2341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2007.01.017
25. Li, Y., Jin, Y., Chang, X., Shang, Y., & Cai, D. (2024). On low-velocity impact response and compression after impact of hybrid woven composite laminates. Coatings, 14(8), Article 986. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14080986
26. Liu, J. L., Zhi, J., Wong, H. L., Sugeng, E. S., Tay, T. E., & Tan, V. B. C. (2022). Effect of ply blocking on the high-speed impact performance of thin-ply CFRP laminates. Composites Science and Technology, 228, Article 109640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2022.109640
27. Matzenmiller, A., Lubliner, J., & Taylor, R. L. (1995). A constitutive model for anisotropic damage in fiber-composites. Mechanics of Materials, 20(2), 125–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-6636(94)00053-0
28. Mohsin, M. A. A., Iannucci, L., & Greenhalgh, E. S. (2021). Experimental and numerical analysis of low-velocity impact of carbon fibre-based non-crimp fabric reinforced thermoplastic composites. Polymers, 13(21), Article 3642. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13213642
29. Mutsuddy, S., Cai, D., Hossain, M. H., & Wang, X. (2025). Repeated low-velocity impact properties of hybrid woven composite laminates. Materials, 18(20), Article 4774. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18204774
30. Olsson, R. (2000). Mass criterion for wave controlled impact response of composite plates. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 31(8), 879–887. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-835X(00)00020-8
31. Patel, S. (2025). Assessment of ply stacking sequence effect on damage behavior of CFRP composite laminate under low-velocity impacts. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, 2025, Article 4349535. https://doi.org/10.1155/amse/4349535
32. Pinho, S. T., Robinson, P., & Iannucci, L. (2006). Fracture toughness of the tensile and compressive fibre failure modes in laminated composites. Composites Science and Technology, 66(13), 2069–2079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2005.12.023
33. Puck, A., & Schürmann, H. (2002). Failure analysis of FRP laminates by means of physically based phenomenological models. Composites Science and Technology, 62(12–13), 1633–1662. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0266-3538(01)00208-1
34. Reddy, J. N. (2003). Mechanics of laminated composite plates and shells: Theory and analysis (2nd ed.). CRC Press.
35. Rezasefat, M., Beligni, A., Sbarufatti, C., Amico, S. C., & Manes, A. (2023). Experimental and numerical study of the influence of pre-existing impact damage on the low-velocity impact response of CFRP panels. Materials, 16(3), Article 914. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16030914
36. Rezasefat, M., Gonzalez-Jimenez, A., Giglio, M., & Manes, A. (2021). Numerical study on the dynamic progressive failure due to low-velocity repeated impacts in thin CFRP laminated composite plates. Thin-Walled Structures, 167, Article 108220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2021.108220
37. Seifoori, S., Mahdian Parrany, A., & Mirzarahmani, S. (2021). Impact damage detection in CFRP and GFRP curved composite laminates subjected to low-velocity impacts. Composite Structures, 261, Article 113278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2020.113278
38. Shang, Y., Ma, X., Feng, C., Ding, Y., & Ma, K. (2025). Study of low-velocity impact damage in composite laminates based on crack energy. Fibers, 13(9), Article 115. https://doi.org/10.3390/fib13090115
39. Sun, M., Chang, M., Wang, Z., Li, H., & Sun, X. (2018). Experimental and simulation study of low-velocity impact on glass fiber composite laminates with reinforcing shape memory alloys at different layer positions. Applied Sciences, 8(12), Article 2405. https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122405
40. Tan, R., Xu, J., Sun, W., Liu, Z., Guan, Z., & Guo, X. (2019). Relationship between matrix cracking and delamination in CFRP cross-ply laminates subjected to low velocity impact. Materials, 12(23), Article 3990. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12233990
41. Tsai, S. W., & Hahn, H. T. (1980). Introduction to composite materials. Technomic Publishing.
42. Tsai, S. W., & Wu, E. M. (1971). A general theory of strength for anisotropic materials. Journal of Composite Materials, 5(1), 58–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/002199837100500106
43. Vlach, J., Doubrava, R., Ruzek, R., Raska, J., Hornas, J., & Kadlec, M. (2022). Strain-field modifications in the surroundings of impact damage of carbon/epoxy laminate. Polymers, 14(16), Article 3243. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14163243
44. Xiong, X., Wang, Z., Zhang, Z., Li, Q., Shen, C., Fan, F., Li, X., & Chen, M. (2023). Simulation and experiment on the low-velocity impact response of flax fabric reinforced composites. Materials, 16(9), Article 3489. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16093489
45. Yang, L., Huang, X., Liao, Z., Wei, Z., & Zou, J. (2024). Experimental and simulation study on failure of thermoplastic carbon fiber composite laminates under low-velocity impact. Polymers, 16(18), Article 2581. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16182581
46. Zhang, H., Wang, M., Wen, W., Xu, Y., Cui, H., & Chen, J. (2018). A full-process numerical analyzing method of low-velocity impact damage and residual strength for stitched composites. Applied Sciences, 8(12), Article 2698. https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122698
47. Zhao, J., Guo, Z., Lyu, Q., & Wang, B. (2024). Prediction of residual compressive strength after impact based on acoustic emission characteristic parameters. Polymers, 16(13), Article 1780. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16131780
48. Zhou, J., Liu, B., & Wang, S. (2022). Finite element analysis on impact response and damage mechanism of composite laminates under single and repeated low-velocity impact. Aerospace Science and Technology, 129, Article 107810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2022.107810
49. Zhou, J., Wen, P., & Wang, S. (2020). Numerical investigation on the repeated low-velocity impact behavior of composite laminates. Composites Part B: Engineering, Article 107771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.107771