Emerging Public Health Paradigms in Relation to COVID-19: A Review

Year 2021, Volume: 4 Issue: 2, 197 - 210, 01.05.2021

Fidelis Okolafor , Jude Igborgbor Ofeota Odozi Beckley Ikhajiagbe Frederick Ekhaise

https://doi.org/10.19127/bshealthscience.843019

Abstract

This paper provided a clear cut definition of pandemic as a disease that are widespread, spanning through borders of the world, affecting large populations. The new coronavirus is a pandemic that emerged in Wuhan, China as case of unidentified etiology. Global pandemics in the time past saw the emergence of debilitating diseases such as Bubonic Plague, Small Pox, Spanish flu, Hong Kong flu, H7N9, SARS, Zika virus, Ebola virus, H1N1 influenza virus and most recently COVID-19. The incidence, the spread, conspiracy theories and management/eradication of COVID-19 influenced the global politics on COVID-19. The paradigmatic approach to the novel coronavirus underscore the inadequacies, challenges and indifferences of government to health care sector pre- COVID-19 era. Strict adherence to guidelines by WHO and CDC is a major public health intervention to tackle COVID-19. Some of the public health approach to diminish COVID-19 are effective response measures, upscale testing, improved quarantine system and public enlightenment. Effort should made by agencies in the front line of vaccine production to speed up development of safe and effective vaccines and work with Government to ensure fair and equitable allocation of these vaccines to the populace. Plant based therapy for the treatment and management of COVID-19 should be investigated and promoted. If we must win the war against COVID-19, all countries under the United Nations should bridge the gap in knowledge sharing with regards to research into vaccine and drugs to combat the deadly coronavirus.

Keywords

COVID-19, Public health, Wuhan, WHO, Vaccine

References

• Al Hasan SM, Saulam J, Kanda K, Hirao T. 2020. The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak trends in mainland China: a joinpoint regression analysis of the outbreak data from January 10 to February 11, 2020. Bulletin of the WHO, 2020: 1-20.
• Ali MG, Ahmad MO, Narjees HS. 2020. Spread of Corona virus disease (COVID – 19) from an outbreak to pandemic in the year 2020. Asian J Res Infect Diseas, 3(4): 37-51. DOI: 10.9734/AJRID/2020/v3i430135.
• Aljazeera News. 2020. Timeline: How the new coronavirus spread | Coronavirus pandemic News | Al Jazeera. URL: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/01/timeline-china-coronavirus-spread-200126061554884.html (access date: November 10, 2020).
• Anjorin A. 2020. The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic: A review, an update on cases in Africa. Asian Pacific J Tropical Med, 13(5): 199-203. DOI: 10.4103/1995-7645.281612.
• Arabi YM, Shalhoub S, Mandourah Y, Al-Hameed F, Al-Omari A, Al-Omari A, Qasim EA. 2017. Ribavirin and interferon therapy for critically ill patients with Middle East respiratory syndrome: a multicenter observational study. Clin Infect Dis, 70(9): 1837-1844. DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciz544.
• Ashcroft R. 2014. An evaluation of the public health paradigm: a view of social work. Soc Work in Public Health, 29: 606-615. DOI: 10.1080/19371918.2014.893856.
• Barrelet C, Bourrier M, Burton-Jeangros C, Schindler M. 2013. Unresolved issues in risk communication research: the case of the H1N1 pandemic (2009-2011). Influenza Other Resp Vir, 7(2): 114-119. DOI: 10.1111/irv.12090.
• Bryner J. 2020. 1st known case of corona virus traced back to November in China. Livescience. URL: https://www.livescience.com/first-case-coronavirus-found.html (access date: October 20, 2020).
• Campbell KM, Doshi R. 2020. The Coronavirus could reshape global order: China is maneuvering for international leadership as the United States falters. URL: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2020-03-18/coronavirus-could-reshape-global-order (access date: October 10, 2020).
• CDC. 2003. Hepatitis A outbreak associated with green onions at a restaurant–Monaca, Pennsylvania. MMWR, 52(47): 1155-1157.
• Charles-Edwards TM. 2013. Wales and the Britons 350–1064. Oxford University Press. New York, USA. pp: 741.
• Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu JGF. 2019. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. The Lancet, 395(10223): 507-513. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30211-7.
• Cohen J. 2020. Wuhan coronavirus hunter Shi Zhengli speaks out. Sci, 369(6503): 487-488. DOI: 10.1126/science.369.6503.487.
• Dai W, Bi J, Li F, Wang S, Huang X, Meng X. 2019. Antiviral efficacy of lavonoids against enterovirus 71 infection in vitro and in newborn mice. Viruses, 11(7): 625. DOI: 10.3390/v11070625.
• Dauba-Pantanacce P. 2020. The political implications of COVID-19: Standard Chattered. URL: https://www.sc.com/en/feature/the-political-implications-of-covid-19/ (access date: October 20, 2020).
• Davies SE. 2013. National security and pandemics. UN Chronicle, 50(2): 20-24. DOI: 10.18356/0dfec716-en.
• Dawood FS, Iuliano AD, Reed C, Meltzer MI, Shay DK. 2012. Estimated global mortality associated with the first 12 months of 2009 pandemic influenza a H1N1 virus circulation: A modeling study. The Lancet Infect Dis, 12(9): 687-95. DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(12)70121-4.
• Donaldson LJ, Rutter PD, Ellis BM, Greaves FE, Mytton OT, Pebody RG, Yardley IE. 2009. Mortality from pandemic A/H1N1 2009 influenza in England: public health surveillance study. BMJ, 339: B5213.
• Doshi P. 2011. The elusive definition of pandemic influenza. Bull World Health Org, 89: 532-538.
• ECDC. 2020. Guidelines for the use of non-pharmaceutical measures to delay and mitigate the impact of 2019-nCoV. ECDC, Stockholm, Sweden.
• Financial T. 2020. Global recession already here, say top economists. 2020. URL: https://www.ft.com/content/be732afe-6526-11ea-a6cd-df28cc3c6a68 (access date: September 09, 2020).
• Goslin LO, Friedman EA. 2015. A retrospective and prospective analysis of the West African Ebola virus disease epidemic: robust national health systems at the foundation and an empowered WHO at the apex. The Lancet, 385(9980): 1902-1909. DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60644-4.
• Guan W-j, Ni Z-y, Hu Y, Liang W-h, Ou C-q, He J-x. 2019. Clinical characteristics of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in China. MedRxiv, 2020: 2020.02.06.20020974.
• Guo YR, Cao QD, Hong ZS, Tan YY, Chen SD, Jin HJ, Yan Y. 2020. The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak–an update on the status. Military Med Res, 7(1): 110. DOI: 10.1186/s40779-020-00240-0.
• Holshue ML, DeBolt C, Lindquist S, Lofy KH. 2020. First case of 2019 novel Coronavirus in the United States. N Engl J Med, 382: 929-936. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2001191.
• Huang Y, Yang L, Dai H, Tian F, Chen K. 2020. Epidemic situation and forecasting of COVID-19 in and outside China. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, December 2019: 2–4. URL: https://www.who.int/bulletin/online_first/20-255158.pdf (access date: September 05, 2020).
• Kelsey JL, Thompson WD, Evans AS. 1986. Methods in observational epidemiology. Oxford University Press, New York, USA.
• Kolifarhood G, Aghaali M, Saadati HM, Taherpour N, Rahimi S, Izadi N, Saeed S, Nazari H. 2020. A narrative review. Clin Aspect COVID, 8(1): 41.
• Last J. 2001. A dictionary of epidemiology (4th edition). Oxford University Press, New York, USA. pp: 196.
• Lu H. 2020. Drug treatment options for the 2019-new coronavirus (2019-nCoV). Biosci Trends, 14(1): 69-71. DOI: 10.5582/bst.2020.01020.
• Lynas M. 2020. COVID: Top 10 current conspiracy theories. Alliance for Science. URL: https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2020/04/covid-top-10-current-conspiracy-theories/ (access date: July 08, 2020).
• Madhav N, Oppenheim B, Gallivan M. 2017. Pandemics: Risks, impacts, and mitigation. In H. S. (eds.). Jamison DT, Gelband H (Ed.), Disease Control Priorities: Improving Health and Reducing Poverty. (3rd editio). The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. DOI: 10.1596/978-1-4648-0527-1_ch17.
• Maurice J. 2016. Cost of protection against pandemics is small. The Lancet, 387: 10016-10012. DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(16)00156-2.
• Mckee DL, Sternberg A, Stange U, Laufer S, Naujokat C. 2020. Candidate drugs against SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Pharmacol Res, 157: 104859. DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104859.
• Moghaddam EB, Teoh T, Sam SS, Lani R, Hassandarvish P, Chik Z. 2014. A metabolite of baicalein with antiviral activity against dengue virus. Sci Rep, 4: 5452.
• Morens DM, Folkers GK, Fauci AS. 2009a. What is a pandemic? J Infect Dis, 200(7): 1018-1021. DOI: 10.1086/644537.
• Morens DM, Folkers GK, Fauci AS. 2009c. What is a pandemic ? J Infectious Dis, 200(7): 1018–1021. DOI: 10.1086/644537.
• Morens DM, Taubenberger JK, Fauci A. 2009b. The persistent legacy of the 1918 influenza virus. N Engl J Med, 361: 109-113.
• Ozili PK, Arun T. 2020. Spillover of COVID-19: Impact on the Global Economy. SSRN Electronic J, 2020: 1-27 DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3562570.
• Pan J, Yao Y, Liu Z, Li M, Wang Y, Dong W, Kan H, Wang W. 2020. Effectiveness of control strategies for Coronavirus Disease 2019: a SEIR dynamic modeling study. MedRxiv, 2020.02.19.20025387. DOI: 10.1101/2020.02.19.20025387.
• Prentice MB, Rahalison L. 2007. Plague. Lancet, 369(9568): 1196–1207. DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(07)60566-2.
• Qiu W, Rutherford S, Mao A, Chu C. 2017. The Pandemic and its Impacts. Health Cult Soc, 9(10): 1-11 DOI: 10.5195/hcs.2017.221.
• Rewar S, Mirdha D, Rewar P. 2015. Treatment and prevention of pandemic H1N1 influenza. Annals Glob Health, 81(5): 645-653. DOI: 10.1016/j.aogh.2015.08.014.
• Schraer A, Rachel B, Lawrie E. 2020. Coronavirus: Scientists brand 5G claims “complete rubbish.” BBC News. URL: https://www.bbc.com/news/52168096 (access date: March 08, 2021).
• Statista. 2021. Number of new cases of coronavirus (COVID-19) worldwide from January 23, 2020 to March 7, 2021, by day Number of new cases of coronavirus (COVID-19) worldwide from January 23, 2020 to March 7, 2021, by day. URL: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1103046/new-coronavirus-covid19-cases-number-worldwide-by-day/ (access date: March 08, 2021).
• Su W, He H. 2015. Emergence and Pandemic Potential of Avian Influenza A (H7N9) Virus. Microbiol Agri Human Health, 33. DOI: 10.5772/61007.
• Taubenberger JK, Morens DM. 2009. Pandemic influenza - including a risk assessment of H5N1. Revue Sci Et Technique-Office Intl Des Epizooties, 28(1): 187-202.
• The New York Times. 2020. U.S.-China feud over coronavirus erupts at world health assembly. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/18/health/coronavirus-who-china-trump.html (access date: October 08, 2020).
• Verikios G, Sullivan M, Stojanovski P, Giesecke J, Woo G. 2015. Assessing regional risks from pandemic influenza: A scenario analysis. The World Econ, 39(8): 1225-1255. DOI: 10.1111/twec.12296.
• Viboud C, Simonsen L, Fuentes R, Flores J, Miller MA. 2016. Global mortality impact of the 1957–1959 influenza pandemic. J Infect Dis, 212(11): 738-745. DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiv534.
• Wang C, Horby PW, Hayden FG, GG. 2020. A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern. The Lancet, 395(10223): 470-473.
• Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, Yang XLJ, Xu M, Shi Z, Hu Z, Zhong W, Xiao G 2020. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res, 30: 269-271. DOI: 10.1038/s41422-020-0282-0.
• Whiting K. 2020. A Science Journal explains how the Spanish Flu changed the world: World Economic Forum. URL: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/04/Covid-19-how-spanish-flu-changed-world/ (access date: October 11, 2020).
• WHO. 2005. Statement on the second meeting of the International Health Regulations. Emergency Committee regarding the outbreak of novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV).
• WHO. 2011. Comparative Analysis of National Pandemic Influenza Preparedness Plans. URL: https://doi.org/https://www.who.int/influenza/resources/documents/comparative_analysis_php_2011_en/en/ (access date: September 08, 2020).
• WHO. 2013. Pandemic Influenza Risk Management WHO Interim Guidance. 2013. URL: https://www.who.int/influenza/preparedness/pandemic/influenza_risk_management/en/ (access date: September 05, 2020).
• WHO. 2016. Pandemic Influenza Preparedness Framework Partnership Contribution: Annual Report 2015. Document WHO/OHE/PED/2016.01, Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP) Secretariat.
• WHO. 2019. Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), 2019(February), 16–24. URL: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/who-china-joint-mission-on-Covid-19-final-report.pdf?sfvrsn=fce87f4e_2 (access date: September 08, 2020).
• WHO. 2020a. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) technical guidance: Patient management. World Health Organization.
• WHO. 2020b. Novel Coronavirus—China, Disease outbreak news : Update. News. URL: https://www.who.int/csr/don/12-january-2020-novel-coronavirus-china/en/ (access date: September 11, 2020).
• WHO. 2020c. Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). 2019(February), 16–24. URL: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/who-china-joint-mission-on-Covid-19-final-report.pdf?sfvrsn=fce87f4e_2 (access date: September 08, 2020).
• Wildoner DA. 2016. What’s new with pandemic flu? Clin Microb News, 38(4): 27-31.
• Woodward A. 2020. Both the new corona virus and SARS outbreaks likely started in Chinese wet markets. Business Insider. URL: https://www.businessinsider.com/ wuhan-coronavirus-chinese-wet-market- photos-2020-1 (access date: October 15, 2020).
• Zhang J, Zhou L, Yang Y, Peng W. 2020. Therapeutic and triage strategies for 2019 novel coronavirus disease in fever clinics. Lancet Respir Med, 8(3): E11-E12. DOI: 10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30071-0.
• Zheming Y, Yuan C. 2020. A simple model to assess Wuhan lock-down effect and region efforts during COVID-19 epidemic in China Mainland. MedRxiv, March, 2020.02.29.20029561. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.29.20029561.
• Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J. 2020. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. The New England J Med, 382(8): 727-733.