TÜRKİYE-AB İLİŞKİLERİNDE MİLLİYETÇİLİĞİN İŞLEVLERİ

Abstract

Türk siyasi hayatında son yıllarda ağırlık kazanmaya başlayan milliyetçi söylemlerin en önemli nedenlerinden biri, 1999 yılında Türkiye’nin AB’ne tam üye olabilecek aday ülkeler listesine alınmasıyla ilgili kararın getirmiş olduğu ulusal zorunluluklardır. Öte yandan, Türkiye’nin Birlik’e üyeliği konusunda ilerlemeler oldukça, Avrupa’da ortaya çıkmaya başlayan Türkiye karşıtlığı da kıtasal milliyetçi söylemde kendisine yer bulmaktadır. Bu kapsamda, bu çalışmada son yıllarda her iki tarafta yükselen, ancak dinamikleri farklı olan milliyetçi söylemlerin nasıl şekil aldıkları gözden geçirilecek; Birlik ve Türkiye arasındaki müzakerelerde her iki taraftaki milliyetçiliğin üstlendiği işlevlerin neler olduğu incelenecek; Türkiye-AB ilişkilerinin geleceği konusunda milliyetçi söylemlerin ne kadar etkili olabilecekleri tartışılacaktır

Keywords

• Türkiye, Avrupa Birliği, Bütünleşme, Milliyetçilik

The Functions of Nationalism in Turkey – EU Relations

Abstract

One of the most impotant factors leading to the rise of nationalist discourse in Turkish political life in recent years is national obligations brought by Turkey’s candidacy to join European Union. Meanwhile, as some steps are achieved for Turkey’s accession, anti-Turkey views find ways of loudly talking within the continental nationalist discourses. In this respect, in this paper it will be reviewed how the prevaling nationalist discources on both side, taking into consideration that their roots are very different, are shaped; it will be examined that nationalism in both sides takes on what kind of functions in negotiations between Turkey and EU; it will be debated to what extent nationalist discourses will become influential on the future of Turkey-European Union relations

Keywords

• Turkey, European Union, Integration, Nationalism

References

1. Ağaoğlu, A. (1972), Üç Medeniyet, İstanbul, Milli Eğitim Basımevi.
2. Aktan, G. (1999), ‘‘Avrupa Birliği’nin Bizde ve Onlarda Yarattığı Kimlik Krizi’’, Foreign Policy, Summer.
3. Aktar, A. (2006), Varlik Vergisi ve ‘‘Türklestirme’’ Politikalari, İstanbul.
4. Aktar, C. (2006), ‘‘Milliyetçilik Kıskacında Siyaset’’, http://www.acikradyo. com.tr/default.aspx?_mv=a&aid=15675, Erişim Tarihi 22/3/2007.
5. Anderson, B. (1983), Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London, Verso.
6. ‘‘AP’den Ermeni ve Pontus Soykırımının Önşart Olmasına Ret’’ (2006), Hürriyet, 27/9/2006.
7. Asad, T. (2002), ‘‘Muslims and European Identity: Can Europe Represent Islam?’’, İçinde: Anthony Pagden ed. The Idea of Europe: From Antiquity to the European Union, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
8. Ballard, R. (1996), ‘‘Islam and the Construction of Europe’’, İçinde: W.A.R. Shadid ve P.S. Van Koningsveld ed. Muslims in the Margin: Political Responses to the Presence of Islam in Western Europe, Kampen, Kok Pharos Pub. House.

9. Bendix, R. (1964), Nation Building and Citizenship, New York, John Wiley.
10. Bora, T. (2002), ‘‘Hangi Avrupa Birliği? Hangi Müktesebat?’’, Birikim, Hangi Avrupa’ya Doğru, Sayı 11.
11. Bowles, S. ve H. Gintis (1987), Democracy and Capitalism, New York, Basic Books.
12. Bozdoğan, S. (1997), Rethinking Modernity and National Identity in Turkey, Seattle, University of Washington Press.
13. Brah, A. (1993), ‘‘Re-Framing Europe: En-Gendered Racisms, Ethnicities and Nationalisms in Contemporary Western Europe’’, Feminist Review, Volume 45, 9-29.
14. Brubaker, R. (1996), Nationalism Reframed; Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
15. Breuilly, J. (1982), Nationalism and the State, New York, St. Martin’s Press.
16. Büyükanıt, Y. (2003), Küreselleşme ve Uluslararası Güvenlik, Ankara, Genelkurmay Askeri Tarih ve Stratejik Etüt Başkanlığı Yayınları.
17. Cizre, Ü. (2004), ‘‘Problem of Democratic Governance of Civil-Military Relations in Turkey and European Union Enlargement Zone’’, European Journal of Political Research, Volume 43, No.1, 107-125.
18. Cook, S.A. (2007), ‘‘Islamist Political Power in Turkey’’, İçinde: Muriel Asseburg ve Daniel Brumberg ed. The Challenge of Islamists for EU and US Policies: Conflict, Stability and Reform, Berlin, German Institute for International and Security Affairs.
19. Cornell, S. ve D. Hartmann (1998), Ethnicity and Race: Making Identities in A Changing World, London, Pine Forge Press.
20. Çağatay, S. (2006), Islam, Secularism and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, London, Routledge.
21. Dağı, I. (2005), ‘‘Transformation of Islamic Political Identity in Turkey: Rethinking the West and Westernization’’, Turkish Studies, Volume 6, No.1.
22. Dahlman, C. (2004), ‘‘Turkey’s Accession to the European Union: The Geopolitics of Enlargement’’, Eurasian Geography and Economics, Volume 45, No.8, 553-574.
23. D’Appollonia, A.C. (2002), ‘‘European Nationalism and European Union’’, İçinde: Anthony Pagden ed. The Idea of Europe: From Antiquity to the European Union, New York, Cambridge University Press, 171- 190.
24. ‘‘Deklarasyona Rum Damgası’’ (2005), Hürriyet, 22/9/2005.
25. D’Estaing, V.G. (2004), ‘‘A Better European Bridge to Turkey’’, Financial Times, November 25.
26. Dinç, C. (2006), ‘‘The Welfare Party, Turkish Nationalism and Its Vision of A New World Order’’, Alternatives, Volume 5, No.2.
27. Emerson, M. ve N. Tocci (2004), ‘‘Turkey as a Bridgehead and Spearhead: Integration EU and Turkish Foreign Policy’’, EU-Turkey Working Papers, Center for European Policy Studies, No.1.
28. Ergil, D. (2000), ‘‘Turkish Nationalism, Then, and Now’’, Journal of International Affairs, Volume 54, No.1.
29. Flam, H. (2003), ‘‘Turkey and the EU: Politics and Economics of Accession’’, Seminar Paper No: 718, Institute for International Economic Studies, Stockholm University.
30. Gellner, E. (1983), Nations and Nationalism, Oxford, Blackwell.
31. Gellner, E. (1997), Nationalism, New York, New York University Press.
32. Goodhart, D. (2004), ‘‘Discomfort with Strangers’’, Guardian, February 24.
33. Goodman, J. (1996), Nationalism and Transnationalism: The National Conflict in Ireland and European Union Integration, Avebury, Aldershot.
34. Gordon, P. ve Ö. Taşpınar (2006), ‘‘Turkey on the Brink’’, The Washington Quarterly, Volume 29, No.3, 57-70.
35. Göle, N. (2005), ‘‘Europe-An Identity or A Project’’, http://www. signandsight.com/features/514.html, Erişim Tarihi 22/3/2007.
36. Hobsbawm, E.J. (1990), Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
37. Hobsbawm, E.J. (1992), ‘‘Whose Fault Line is It Anyway?’’, New Statesman and Society, April 24.
38. Huntington, S. (1998), The Clash of Civilizations, New York, Simon&Schuster, 1st Touchstone Edition.
39. Hutchinson, J. (1994), Modern Nationalism, London, Fontana Press.
40. İnalcık, H. (1998), ‘‘Türkiye ve Avrupa: Dün ve Bugün’’, Doğu Batı, Cilt 1, Sayı 2.
41. Kadıoğlu, A. (1996), ‘‘The Paradox of Turkish Nationalism and the Construction of Official Identity’’, Middle Eastern Studies, Volume 32, No.2.
42. Kalaycı, H. (2006), ‘‘Avrupa Birliği ve Mikro Milliyetçilik’’, Stratejik Analiz, Mayıs.
43. Karpat, K. (1973), An Inquiry into the Social Foundations of Nationalism in the Ottoman State: From Social Estates to Classes, from Millets to Nations, Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Center of International Studies, Research Monograph No. 39.
44. Kasaba, R. ve S. Bozdogan (2000), ‘‘Turkey at a Crossroad’’, Journal of International Affairs, Volume 51, 1-20.
45. Keating, M. (2004), ‘‘European Integration and the Nationalities Question’’, Politics&Society, Volume 32, No.3, 367-388.
46. Keyman, F. (2006), ‘‘AB-Türkiye: Güven Bunalımını Aşmak’’, http://www. kuyerel.com/modules/AMS/article.php?storyid=272, Erişim Tarihi 18/10/2007.
47. Kirişçi, K. (2003), ‘‘Turkey: A Transformation from Emigration to Immigration’’, Avrupa Araştırmaları Merkezi, İstanbul, Boğaziçi Üniversitesi.
48. Koç, Y. (2003), ‘‘Kamu Yönetimi Reformu: Devleti ‘‘Yeniden Yapılandırmak mı’’ ‘‘Üniter Yapıyı Zayıflatmak mı?’’, Stradigma, No 9.
49. Kösebalaban, H. (2002), ‘‘Turkey’s EU Membership: A Clash of Security Cultures’’, Middle East Policy, Volume 9, No.2.
50. Lewis, B. (1993), Islam and the West, New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
51. ‘‘Limanlar Açılmazsa Türkiye Kendini Veto Eder’’ (2006), Hürriyet, 18/10/2006.
52. Marquard, D. (1989); ‘‘The Irresistible Tide of Europeanisation’’, İçinde: S. Hall ve M. Jacques ed. New Times- the Changing Face of Politics in the 1990s, London, Lawrence and Wishard.
53. Marx, A.W. (1996), Making Race and Nation: A Comparison of South Africa, the United States and Brazil, New York, Cambridge University Press.
54. Marx, A.W. ( 2003), Faith in Nation: Exclusionary Origins of Nationalism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
55. Mayer, F.C. ve J. Palmovski (2004), ‘‘European Identities and the EU: The Ties that Bind the Peoples of Europe’’, JCMS, Volume 42, No.3, 573- 598.
56. O’Sullivan, J. (2004-2005), ‘‘In Defense of Nationalism’’, The National Interest, No.78, Winter, 33-40.
57. Oba, A.E. (1995), Türk Milliyetçiliğinin Doğuşu, Ankara, İmge.
58. Oran, B. (2001), Söyleşi, Radikal, 9/4/2001.
59. Özkırımlı, U. (2006), ‘‘Milliyetçilik Araştırması’’, Tempo, 6 Nisan.
60. Özkırımlı, U. (2008), Milliyetçilik ve Türkiye-AB İlişkileri, İstanbul, Tesev Yayınları.
61. Perthes, V. (2004), ‘‘America’s ‘Greater Middle East’ and Europe: Key Issues For Dialogue’’, Middle East Policy, Volume 11, No.3.
62. Pirie, P. (1996), ‘‘National Identity and Politics in Southern and Eastern Ukraine’’, Europe-Asia Studies, No.48, November, 1079-1104.
63. ‘‘Rehn: TSK Konusunda Yanlış Anlaşılma Oldu Diyaloğa Açığız’’ (2006), Hürriyet, 3/10/2006.
64. Rehn, O. (2005), ‘‘Rehn: Turkey is already a ‘privileged partner’ of the EU’’, EU News and Policy Positions, July 13, http://www.euractiv. com/en/enlargement/rehn-turkey-privileged-partner-eu/article- 142431, Erişim Tarihi 6/7/2006.
65. Robyn, R. (2005), National vs Supranational Identity in Europe?, New York, Routledge.
66. Sandıklı, A. (2001), Türkiye’nin Dış Politikasında Avrupa Birliği ve Alternatifleri, İstanbul, Harp Akademileri Komutanlığı.
67. Schlesinger, P. (1992), ‘‘Europeanness: A New Cultural Battlefield?’’, Innovation, Volume 5, No.1.
68. Serbos, S. (2008), ‘‘Between the Functional and the Essential: European Perceptions & Domestic Choices in the Framework of Contemporary EU-Turkish Relations’’, Research Journal of International Studies, Issue 7, March, 4-18.
69. Smith, A.D. (1991), National Identity, Harmondsworth, Penguin/Reno, University of Nevada Press.
70. Snyder, L.L. (1976), Varieties of Nationalism, New York, Holt, Rhein and Winston.
71. Sweet, S.A. ve T.L. Brunell (1998), ‘‘Constructing a Supranational Constitution: Dispute Resolution and Governance in the EC’’, American Political Science Review, Volume 92, No.1, 63-81.
72. Şahin, K. (2007), ‘‘Bir İdeoloji Olarak Milliyetçilik’’, Akademik Bakış, Sayı 12.
73. Tank, P. (2005), ‘‘Political Islam in Turkey: A State of Controlled Secularity’’, Turkish Studies, Volume 6, No.1.
74. Templar, M.A. (2008), ‘‘Tasting the Bitter Pekmez: Causes of Turkey’s Instability’’, Journal of Global Change and Governance, Volume 1, No.2, 1-12.
75. Tilly, C. (1994), ‘‘States and Nationalism in Europe 1492-1992’’, Theory and Society, Volume 23, No.1, 131–146.
76. Tocci, N. (2005), ‘‘Europeanization in Turkey: Trigger or Anchor for Reform?’’, Southern European Society and Politics, Volume 16, No.1, 73-83.
77. Turkey 2005 Progress Report (2005), Brussels, EU Commission.
78. Turkey 2007 Progress Report (2007), Brussels, EU Commission.
79. Üste, B. (2006), ‘‘Türkiye’de Siyasal İktidara Gelen Partilerin AET/AT/AB İlişkileri Hakkındaki Görüşleri ve Yönetim Yapısına Etkileri’’, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Cilt 8, Sayı 3.
80. Van Evara, S. (1990-91), ‘‘Primed for Peace: Europe After the Cold War’’, International Security, Volume 15, No.3, 7-57.
81. Wimmel, A. (2006), ‘‘Beyond the Bosphorus? Comparing German, French and British Discourses on Turkey’s Application to Join the European Union’’, Political Science Series, No.111, Vienna, Institute for Advanced Studies.
82. Yurdusev, N.A. (1997), ‘‘Avrupa Kimliğinin Oluşumu ve Türk Kimliği’’, İçinde: Atilla Eralp ed. Türkiye ve Avrupa: Batılılaşma, Kalkınma, Demokrasi, İstanbul, İmge.
83. Zollberg, A.R. (1983), ‘‘The Formation of New States as a Refugee- Generating Process’’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, No.467, May, 24-38.