Türkiye'de Çocuk İşçiliğinin Sebepleri ve Sektörel Dağılımı

Abstract

Uluslararası İş Örgütü’nün 2013 yılı istatistiklerine göre dünyada 168 milyon çocuk işçi bulunmaktadır. Ev işlerinde ve aile şirketlerinde ücretsiz çalışan çocuklar da dahil edildiğinde bu rakamın çok daha fazla olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Türkiye’de çocuk işçiliği sorunu da özellikle 4 milyona yakın Suriye’li sığınmacı nüfusunun ülkeye yerleşmesinden sonra daha fazla gündeme gelmiştir. Bu makale 2012 yılı Çocuk İşgücü Anketini analiz edilerek, Türkiye’de kız çocuklarının erkeklerden daha yüksek bir olasılıkla işgücünde olduklarını tespit etmiştir. Ayrıca 15-17 yaş grubu için daha küçük yaş grubuyla karşılaştırıldığında eğitimle çocuk işçiliği arasında daha güçlü bir negatif ilişki bulunmuştur. Bunların yanı sıra hanehalkı büyüklüğü ve hane reisinin eğitim seviyesinin çocuk işçiliğini belirleyen önemli faktörler arasında olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Sektörel dağılıma baktığımızda ise yaş grubu farketmeksizin cinsiyetler arası net bir dağılım görülmektedir; kız çocuklarının daha büyük olasılıkla tarım sektöründe, erkek çocuklarının ise diğer sektörlere nazaran yüksek olasılıkla sanayi sektöründe istihdam edildikleri tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca, aile reisinin eğitim seviyesi azaldıkça erkek çocuklarının çalışma ortamlarının kötüleştiği; bir diğer deyişle kötü şartlara sahip işlerde çalışmak zorunda kaldıkları bulunmuştur.

Child Labor and Its Sectoral Distribution in Turkey

Abstract

According to the International Labor Organization’s statistics in 2013, there are 168 million children worldwide in the labor market. This number is much higher when we include children who work in unpaid jobs such as house chores and unpaid work in family businesses. The extent of problem is not different for the Turkey and it even got worse after the arrival of around 4 million Syrian refugees. This paper analyzes the Child Labor Survey in 2012 and finds that girls have higher probability of being child workers both in rural and urban areas. Moreover, the negative association between child labor and education is stronger for children aged between 15 to 17. Household size and parental education levels are found to be important determinants of child labor as it is already suggested by the literature in different contexts. In terms of sectoral distribution, we find a clear pattern with respect to gender. Girls have higher probability to work in the agricultural sector while boys have higher likelihood of working in manufacturing sector, irrespective of their ages. Furthermore, parental educational level which is used as a proxy for the potential income of the household head is found to be significantly associated with the work conditions of boys although it is not found to be statistically significant factor for girls’ work conditions

Keywords

• Child work, informality, agriculture, manufacturing, service, work conditions.

References

1. Acaroğlu, H. (2010). An empirical approach about some important features of child labor in Turkey. Business & Economics Horizons, 3 (3), 135-146.
2. Alderman, & Harold. (1997). The Income Gap in Cognitive Skills in Rural Pakistan. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 46 (1), 97-122.
3. Altaş, D., & Öztunç, H. (2013). An Empirical Analysis of Television Commercial Ratings in Alternative Competitive Environments Using Multinomial Logit Model. Eurasian Journal of Business and Economics, 6 (11), 39-51.
4. Azen, R., & Walker, C. M. (2011). Categorical Data Analysis for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. New York.
5. Baland, J. M., & Robinson, J. A. (2000). Is child labor inefficient? Journal of Political Economy, 108, 663-679.
6. Balderston, J. B. (1984). Determinants of children's school participation. In Malnourished Children of the Rural Poor. (J. B. Balderston, Ed.) Boston: Auburn House Publishing Company.
7. Basu, K. (1999). Child Labor: Cause, Consequence, and Cure, with Remarks on International Labor Standards. Journal of Economic Literature, 37, 1083–1119.
8. Beegle, K., Dehejia, R., & Gatti, R. (2009). Why should we care about child labor? The education, labor market, and health consequences of child labor. Journal of Human Resources, 44(4), 871-889.

9. Bourguignon, F., & Chiappori, P. A. (1994). "The Collective Approach to Household Behavior,” in The Measurement of Household Welfare. (R. Blundell, I. Preston, & I. Walker, Eds.) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
10. Bulutay T. (1995). Türkiye’de Çalışan Çocuklar, Ankara, DİE-ILO, DİE Yayın No. 1840.
11. Chernichovsky, D. (1985). Socioeconomic and demographic aspects of school enrollment and attendance in rural Botswana. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 33 (2), 319-332.
12. Dayıoğlu, M. (2005). Patterns of Change in Child Labour and Schooling in Turkey: The Impact of Compulsory Schooling. Oxford Development Studies , 33 (2), 195-210.
13. Dayıoğlu, M. (2006). The impact of household income on child labour in urban Turkey. The Journal of Development Studies, 42 (6), 939-956.
14. Dayıoğlu, M., & Assaad, R. (2003). The Determinants of child labor in urban Turkey, Working Paper 0302. Cairo: Economic Reserach Forum.
15. Dayioglu, M. & Kırdar, M. (2018). The Impact of the Extension of Compulsory Schooling on Child Labor in Turkey. Unpublished Paper.
16. Duyar İ. & Özener, B. (2003). Çocuk İşçiler: Çarpık Gelişen Bedenler, Ütopya Yayınevi, Ankara.
17. Edmonds, E. V. (2008). Defining child labour: A review of the definitions of child labour in policy research. Geneva: International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour.
18. Edmonds, E. V. (2007). Handbook of Development Economics. In E. V. Edmonds, Chapter 57 Child Labor (Vol. 4, pp. 3607-3709). Bonn, Germany: Elsevier.
19. Fişek D. (1986). Çocuk İşçilerin Mediko-Sosyal Sorunları Araştırması, (Yayımlanmamış Araştırma Raporu).
20. Friedberg, L. (1998). Did Unilateral Divorce Raise Divorce Rates? Evidence from Panel Data. American Economic Review, 88 (3), 608-27.
21. Friedmen, J. (2013). Tools of the trade: when to use those sample weights. Retrieved 01 20, 2018, from Thw World Bank: http://blogs.worldbank.org/impactevaluations/tools-of-the-trade-when-touse-those-sample-weights
22. Garson, D. G. (2014). Logistic Regression: Binary&Multinomial:2016 Edition. Statistical Associates Publishers; 2016 edition.
23. Gary, S., & Young, L. J. (2011). The Fragility of Estimated Effects of Unilateral Divorce Laws on Divorce Rates. The BE Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, 11 (1).
24. Grootaert, C. (1998). Child Labor in Côte d’Ivoire: Incidence and Determinants. Policy Research Working Paper World Bank, no: 1905.
25. Grootaert, C., & Kanbur, R. (May, 1995). Child Labor, A Review, Policy Reserach Working Paper 1454. The World Bank, Development Economics. Washington: The World Bank.
26. Grootaert, C., & Kanbur, R. (May 1995). POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER 1454. Washington: Development.
27. Humphries, J., & Horrell, S. (1995). The Exploitation of Little Children": Child Labor and the Family Economy in the Industrial Revolution. Explorations in Economic History, 32 (4), 485-516.
28. ILO. (1997). Economically Active Population, 1950-2010. STAT Working Papers. International Labor Organization. (1993). Resolution concerning the International Classification of Status in Employment (ICSE). International Labor Organization.
29. International Labour Organization. (1999). C182 - Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182). Geneva: International Labour Organization. International Labour Organization, International Programme on the elimination of Child Labor (IPEC). (2013). Marking progress against child
30. Labour, Global estimates and Trends 2000-2012. Geneva: International Labour Office.
31. Jensen, P., & Nielsen, H. S. (1997). Child Labour or School Attendance? Evidence from Zambia. Journal of Population Economics, 10 (4), 407–424.
32. Kayaoglu, A. (2019). Child Work Beyond Childhood: Its Consequences Stretching Through Adulthood. Unpublished Paper.
33. Lillard, L. A., & Willis, R. J. (1994). Intergenerational educational mobility: Effects of family and state in Malaysia. Journal of Human Resources, 29 (4), 1126-1166.
34. Loayza, N. P. (2004). Poverty and growth in Peru. 1985 (90), pp. 1990-97.
35. Lordoğlu, K., & Etiler, N. (2014). Batı Karadeniz Bölgesinde Mevsimlik Gezici Tarım İşçiliğinde Çalışan Çocuklar Üzerine Sınırlı Bir Araştırma. Calisma ve Toplum, 41(2).
36. Moehling, C. M. (1995). The Intrahousehold Allocation of Resources and the Participation of Children in Household Decision-Making: Evi- dence from Early Twentieth Century America. (D. o. mimeo, Ed.) Northwestern University.
37. Myers, W. (1989). Urban working children: a comparison of four surveys from South America. International Labor Review, 128, 321-335.
38. Patrinos, H. A., & Psacharopoulos, G. (1997). Family Size, Schooling and child labor in Peru- An Emprical Analysis. Journal of Population Economic, 10 (4), 387-405.
39. Patrinos, H. A., & Psacharopoulos, G. (1995). Educational Performance and Child Labor in Paraguay. Journal of Educational Development, 15 (1), 47-60.
40. Patrinos, H., & Psacharopoulos, G. (1997). Family size, schooling and child labor in Peru–An empirical analysis. Journal of population economics, 10 (4), 387- 405.
41. Psacharopoulos, G. (1997). Child labor versus educational attainment: Some evidence from Latin America. Journal of population economics, 10 (4), 377-386.
42. Ranjan, P. (2001). Credit Constraints and the phenomenon of child labor (Vol. 64). Journal of Development Economics.
43. Ray, R. (2000). Cnild Labors Child Schooling, and Their Interaction with Adult Labor: Empirical Evidence for Peru and Pakistan. The World Bank Economic Review, 14 (2), 347-367.
44. Rossi, M., & Rosati, F. C. (2003). Children's working hours and school enrollment: Evidence from Pakistan and Nicaragua. The World Bank Economic Review, 17 (2), 283-295.
45. Salmon , C. (2005). Child Labor in Bangladesh Are Children the Last Economic Resource of the Household? Journal of Developing Societies, 21 (1-2), 35-54.
46. Sanguinetty, J. A. (1981). Determinants of Years of Schooling in Individuals: a Study in Four Latin Latin American Cities. (unpublished).
47. Şişman, Y. (2006). Sokakta çalışan çocukların yaşam koşulları ve gelecek beklentileri. Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt 6, Sayı 2.
48. Solon, G., Haider, S. J., & Woolridge, J. M. (2015). What Are We Weighting For? Journal of Human Resources, 50 (2), 301-316.
49. Starweather, J., & Moske, A. K. (2011, 09 10). Multinomial Logistic Regression. Retrieved 03 02, 2018, from www.it.unt.edu: https://it.unt.edu/sites/default/files/mlr_jds_aug2011.pdf
50. Tansel, A. (2002). Determinants of school attainment of boys and girls in Turkey: individiual, household and community factors. Economics of Education Review 21, 21 (5), 455-470.
51. The Pennsylvania State University. (n.d.). Analysis of Discrete Data-More on Goodness-of-Fit and Likelihood ratio tests. Retrieved 06 03, 2018, from www.onlinecourses.science.psu.edu: https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat504/node/220
52. Tunalı, İ. (1996). Education and work: Experiences of 6- to14-year-old children in Turkey, education and the labour market in Turkey. (T. Bulutay, Ed.) 106- 143.
53. Turkish State Institute of Statistics. (2016). Doğum İstatistikleri. Toplam doğurganlık hızının en yüksek ve en düşük olduğu 10 il. Ankara: State Institute of Statistics.
54. Turkish Statistical Institute. (2013). Working Child 2012. Implementation. Ankara: TURKSTAT.
55. TURKSTAT. (2013). Çoçuk İşgücü Anketi Sonuçları, 2012. TURKSTAT. Ankara: TURKSTAT.
56. Udry, C. (2003). Child labor. Economic Growth Center, Yale University. Center Discusion Paper.
57. Uysal, G. (2019). Long-term Consequences of Child Labour. Unpublished paper. Weiner, M. (1991). The child and the state in India: Child labor and education policy in comparative perspective. Princeton,N.J.: Princeton University Press.
58. WorldBank. (2017). World Development Indicators: Population dynamics. WorldBank.