Examination of the Psychological Effects of COVID-19 on University Students in Türkiye One Year Later from the Pandemic

Year 2024, Volume: 10 Issue: 1, 108 - 122, 31.05.2024

Yıldız Bilge Ülkü Tankut Yıldırım Aygerim Bilgen Esra Belgeli Zeynep Zengin

https://doi.org/10.30613/curesosc.1252237

Abstract

This study aims to evaluate and compare the levels of depression, anxiety, stress, social media addiction, loneliness, and life satisfaction of university students for the pre-pandemic period and one year after Covid-19. Furthermore, aims to examine whether gender is a determinant in this comparison and to determine to what extent depression, anxiety, and stress are predicted by social media addiction, loneliness, life satisfaction, and tolerance to Covid-19. Participants consisted of 544 university students, 411 women (75.6%), and 133 (24.4%) men, aged between 18 and 40 (22.63-3.46). It was detected that the whole variables in the present study were related to each other. Also, there was a significant difference in favor of after Covid-19 between before and after Covid-19 scores in all of the variables of this study and this difference for some variables was higher in the female group. Additionally, it was observed tolerance to Covid-19, loneliness, social media addiction and satisfaction with life were predictors. Consequently, the difficulties brought by the pandemic may increase the susceptibility of depression, stress, and anxiety by affect loneliness and life satisfaction. Besides, the determination that women are more vulnerable in the face of difficulties related to Covid-19 may be associated that genders differ in the way they perceive and experience these difficulties.

Keywords

COVID-19, Depression, Anxiety, Stress, Social Media Addiction, Loneliness, Satisfaction with Life

Pandemiden Bir Yıl Sonra COVID-19'un Türkiye'deki Üniversite Öğrencileri Üzerindeki Psikolojik Etkilerinin İncelenmesi

Abstract

Bu çalışma, üniversite öğrencilerinin depresyon, anksiyete, stres, sosyal medya bağımlılığı, yalnızlık ve yaşam doyum düzeylerinin pandemi öncesi ve Covid-19 sonrasındaki bir yıl için değerlendirilmesi ve karşılaştırılmasını amaçlamaktadır. Ayrıca, bu karşılaştırmada cinsiyetin belirleyici olup olmadığının incelenmesi ve sosyal medya bağımlılığı, yalnızlık, yaşam doyumu ve Covid-19'a toleransın depresyon, anksiyete ve stresi ne düzeyde yordadığının belirlenmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Çalışmaya yaşları 18-40 (22,63-3,46) arasında değişen 411'i kadın (%75,6) ve 133'ü (%24,4) erkek olmak üzere 544 üniversite öğrencisi katılmıştır. Bu çalışmadaki tüm değişkenlerin birbiriyle ilişkili olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca, mevcut çalışmanın tüm değişkenlerinde Covid-19 öncesi ve sonrası puanları arasında Covid-19 sonrası lehine anlamlı bir fark olduğu ve bazı değişkenler için bu farkın kadın katılımcılarda daha yüksek olduğu saptanmıştır. Bununla birlikte, Covid-19'a tolerans, yalnızlık, sosyal medya bağımlılığı ve yaşam doyumu durumunun yordayıcı olduğu gözlenmiştir. Sonuç olarak, pandeminin getirdiği zorluklar, yalnızlık ve yaşam doyumunu etkileyerek depresyon, stres ve anksiyete yatkınlığını artırabilir. Öte yandan, kadınların Covid-19 ile ilgili zorluklar karşısında daha savunmasız olduğunun tespiti, cinsiyetlerin bu zorlukları algılama ve deneyimleme biçimlerinin farklı olmasıyla ilişkilendirilebilir.

Keywords

COVID-19, Depresyon, Kaygı, Stres, Sosyal Medya Bağımlılığı, Yalnızlık, Yaşam Doyumu

References

• Akın, A., & Çetin, B. (2007). Depresyon, Anksiyete, Stres Ölçeği (DASÖ): Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 7(1), 241-268.
• Al Lily, A. E., Ismail, A. F., Abunasser, F. M., & Alhajhoj Alqahtani, R. H. (2020). Distance education as a response to pandemics: Coronavirus and Arab culture. Technology in Society, 63, 101317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2020.101317
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Publishing.
• Anastasiou, E., & Marie-Noelle, D. (2021). First-wave COVID-19 pandemic in Greece: The role of demographic, social, and geographical factors in life satisfaction during lockdown. Social Sciences, 10, 186. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10060186
• Antony, M. M., Bieling, P. J., Cox, B. J., Enns, M. W., & Swinson, R. P. (1998). Psychometric properties of the 42-item and 21-item versions of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales in clinical groups and a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 10(2), 176-181. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.10.2.176
• Banerjee, D., & Rai, M. (2020). Social isolation in Covid-19: The impact of loneliness. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 66(6),525-527. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020922269
• Bäuerle, A., Teufel, M., Musche, V., Weismüller, B., Kohler, H., Hetkamp, M., Dörrie, N., Schweda, A., & Skoda, E. M. (2020). Increased generalized anxiety, depression and distress during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study in Germany. Journal of Public Health, 42(4), 672-678. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdaa106
• Bilge, Y., & Bilge, Y. (2020). Koronavirüs salgını ve sosyal izolasyonun psikolojik semptomlar üzerindeki etkilerinin psikolojik sağlamlık ve stresle baş etme tarzları açısından incelenmesi. Klinik Psikiyatri Dergisi, 23(1), 38-51.
• Boursier, V., Gioia, F., Musetti, A., & Schimmenti, A. (2020). Facing loneliness and anxiety during the COVID-19 isolation: The role of excessive social media use in a sample of Italian adults. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 586222. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.586222
• Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. Lancet, 395, 912-920. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8
• Bu, F., Steptoe, A., & Fancourt, D. (2020). Who is lonely in lockdown? Cross-cohort analyses of predictors of loneliness before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Public Health, 186, 31-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2020.06.036
• Chen, B., Sun, J., & Feng, Y. (2020). How have COVID-19 isolation policies affected young people’s mental health? Evidence from Chinese college students. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1529), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01529
• Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155-159.
• Çelik, E., Baltaci, S., & Yaman, N. (2023). Psychological effects of the pandemic on Turkish university students during the period of returning to universities. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 13(68), 61-74. https://doi.org/10.17066/tpdrd.1198897
• Demir, A. (1989). UCLA Yalnızlık Ölçeği'nin geçerlik ve güvenirliği. Psikoloji Dergisi, 7(23), 14-18.
• Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71-75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
• Dymecka, J., Gerymski, R., & Machnik-Czerwik, A. (2021). Fear of COVID-19 as a buffer in the relationship between perceived stress and life satisfaction in the Polish population at the beginning of the global pandemic. Health Psychology Report, 9(2), 149-159. https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr.2020.102136
• Elmer, T., Mepham, K., & Stadtfeld, C. (2020). Students under lockdown: Comparisons of students’ social networks and mental health before and during the COVID-19 crisis in Switzerland. PLoS ONE, 15(7), e0236337. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236337
• Field, A. (2005). Discovering statistics using SPSS. SAGE Publication.
• Fuhrer, R., Stansfeld, S., Chemali, J., & Shipley, M. (1999). Gender, social relations and mental health: prospective findings from an occupational cohort (Whitehall II study). Social Science & Medicine, 48(1), 77-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(98)00290-1
• Gabutti, G., d’Anchera, E., Sandri, F., Savio, M., & Stefanati, A. (2020). Coronavirus: Update related to the current outbreak of COVID-19. Infectious Diseases and Therapy, 9, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40121-020-00295-5
• Graham, B. M., Weiner, S., & Li, S. H. (2020). Gender differences in avoidance and repetitive negative thinking following symptom provocation in men and women with spider phobia. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59(4), 565-577. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12267
• González-Sanguino, C., Ausín, B., Castellanos, M. Á., Saiz, J., López-Gómez, A., Ugidos, C., & Muñoz, M. (2020). Mental health consequences during the initial stage of the 2020 Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) in Spain. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 87, 172-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.040
• Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2005). The short-form version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): Construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44(2), 227-239. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466505X29657
• Hess, U., Senécal, S., Kirouac, G., Herrera, P., Philippot, P., & Kleck, R. E. (2000). Emotional expressivity in men and women: Stereotypes and self-perceptions. Cognition and Emotion, 14(5), 609-642. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930050117648
• Hwang, T. J., Rabheru, K., Peisah, C., Reichman, W., & Ikeda, M. (2020). Loneliness and social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Psychogeriatrics, 32(10), 1217-1220. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610220000988
• Islam, M. A., Barna, S. D., Raihan, H., Khan, N. A., & Hossain, M. T. (2020). Depression and anxiety among university students during the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh: A web-based crosssectional survey. PLoS ONE, 15(8), e0238162. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238162
• Jiang, Y. (2021). Problematic social media usage and anxiety among university students during the COVID-19 pandemic: The mediating role of psychological capital and the moderating role of academic burnout. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 612007. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.612007
• Killgore, W., Taylor, E. C., Cloonan, S. A., & Dailey, N. S. (2020). Psychological resilience during the COVID-19 lockdown. Psychiatry Research, 291, 113216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113216
• Köker, S. (1991). Normal ve sorunlu ergenlerin yaşam doyumu düzeyinin karşılaştırılması [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Ankara University.
• Labrague, L. J. (2021). Resilience as a mediator in the relationship between stress-associated with the Covid-19 pandemic, life satisfaction, and psychological well-being in student nurses: A cross-sectional study. Nurse Education in Practice, 56, 103182, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2021.103182
• Li, S. H., & Graham, B. M. (2017). Why are women so vulnerable to anxiety, trauma-related and stress-related disorders? The potential role of sex hormones. Lancet Psychiatry, 4(1), 73-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30358-3
• Lim, M. H., Eres, R., & Vasan, S. (2020). Understanding loneliness in the twenty-first century: an update on correlates, risk factors, and potential solutions. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55, 793-810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-020-01889-7
• Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (2nd ed.). Psychology Foundation of Australia.
• Luo, T., Chen, W., & Liao, Y. (2021). Social media use in China before and during COVID-19: Preliminary results from an online retrospective survey. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 140, 35-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.05.057
• McQuaid, R. J., Cox, S., Ogunlana, A., & Jaworska, N. (2020). The burden of loneliness: Implications of the social determinants of health during COVID-19. Psychiatry Research, 296, 113648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113648
• Niedzwiedz, C. L., Green, M. J., Benzeval M., Campbell, D., Craig, P., Demou, E., Leyland, A., Pearce, A., Thomson, R., Whitley, E., & Katikireddi, S. V. (2020). Mental health and health behaviours before and during the initial phase of the COVID-19 lockdown: Longitudinal analyses of the UK household longitudinal study Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 75, 224-231. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2020-215060
• Özmen, S., Özkan, O., Özer, Ö., & Yanardağ, M. Z. (2021). Investigation of COVID-19 fear, well-being and life satisfaction in Turkish society. Social Work Public Health, 36(2), 164-177. https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2021.1877589
• Padmanabhanunni, A., & Pretorius, T. (2021). The loneliness-life satisfaction relationship: the parallel and serial mediating role of hopelessness, depression and ego-resilience among young adults in south Africa during COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, 3613. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073613
• Palgi, Y., Shrira, A., Ring, L., Bodner, E., Avidor, S., Bergman, Y., Cohen-Fridel, S., Keisari, S., & Hoffman, Y. (2020). The loneliness pandemic: Loneliness and other concomitants of depression, anxiety and their comorbidity during the COVID-19 outbreak. Journal of Affective Disorders, 275, 109-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.06.036
• Parlapani, E., Holeva, V., Voitsidis, P., Blekas, A., Gliatas, I., Porfyri, G. N., Golemis, A., Papadopoulou, K., Dimitriadou, A., Chatzigeorgiou, A. F., Bairachtari, V., Patsiala, S., Skoupra, M., Papigkioti, K., Kafetzopoulou, C., & Diakogiannis, I. (2020). Psychological and behavioral responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in Greece. Frontiers in psychiatry, 11, 821. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00821
• Prowse, R., Sherratt, F., Abizaid, A., Gabrys, R. L., Hellemans, K. G. C., Patterson, Z. R., & McQuaid, R. J. (2021). Coping with the COVID-19 pandemic: Examining gender differences in stress and mental health among university students. Front Psychiatry, 7(12), 650759. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.650759
• Rehman, U., Shahnawaz, M G., Khan, N. H., Kharshiing, K. D., Khursheed, M., Gupta, K., Kashyap, D., & Uniyal, R. (2021). Depression, anxiety and stress among Indians in times of Covid-19 lockdown. Community Mental Health, 57, 42-48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-020-00664-x
• Rogowska, A. M., Kuśnierz, C., & Bokszczanin, A. (2020). Examining anxiety, life satisfaction, general health, stress and coping styles during COVID-19 pandemic in Polish sample of university students. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 13, 797-811. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S266511
• Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Ferguson, M. L. (1978). Developing a measure of loneliness. Journal of Personality Assessment, 42(3), 290-294. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4203_11
• Savage, M. J., James, R., Magistro, D., Donaldson, J., Healy, L. C., Nevill, M., & Hennis, P. J. (2020). Mental health and movement behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic in UK university students: Prospective cohort study. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 19, 100357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2020.100357
• Soest, T. V., Bakken, A., Pedersen, W., & Sletten, M. A. (2020). Life satisfaction among adolescents before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Tidsskriftet Den Norske Legeforening, 140(10), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4045/tidsskr.20.0437
• Sujarwoto, Saputri, R., & Yumarni, T. (2021). Social media addiction and mental health among university students during the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1-15. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-021-00582-3
• Şahin, C., & Yağcı, M. (2017). Sosyal Medya Bağımlılığı Ölçeği-Yetişkin Formu: Geçerlilik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (KEFAD), 14(1), 523-538.
• Ting, C. H., & Essau, C. (2021). Addictive behaviours among university students in Malaysia during COVID-19 pandemic. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 14, 100375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2021.100375 Yazıcıoğlu, Y., & Erdoğan, S. (2004). SPSS uygulamalı bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. Detay Yayıncılık.
• Vannucci, A., Flannery, K. M., & Ohannessian, C. M. (2017). Social media use and anxiety in emerging adults. Journal of Affective Disorders, 207, 163-166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.040
• Varma, P., Junge, M., Meaklim, H., & Jackson, M. L. (2021). Younger people are more vulnerable to stress, anxiety and depression during COVID-19 pandemic: A global cross-sectional survey. Progress in Neuro-psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 13(109), 110236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110236
• Wang, C., & Zhao, H. (2020). The Impact of COVID-19 on Anxiety in Chinese university students. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1168. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01168
• Whiting, A., & Williams, D. (2013). Why people use social media: A uses and gratifications approach. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 16(4), 362-369. https://doi.org/10.1108/QMR-06-2013-0041
• World Health Organization (2020). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public. Geneva: World Health Organization.
• Wu, M., Xu, W., Yao, Y., Zhang, L., Guo, L., Fan, J., & Chen, J. (2020). Mental health status of students' parents during COVID-19 pandemic and its influence factors. General Psychiatry, 33(4), e100250. https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2020-100250
• Yıldırım, A., Boysan, M., & Kefeli, M. C. (2018). Psychometric properties of the Turkish version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21). British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2018.1442558
• Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2005). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. Seçkin Yayıncılık.
• Zhao, N., & Zhou, G. (2021). COVID-19 stress and addictive social media use (SMU): mediating role of active use and social media flow. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.635546 and social media flow. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.635546