Afro-American Jews

Abstract

Judaism is one of the oldest surviving religious traditions in the world. The Jews, who base their history on Abraham and his son Isaac, began to be called religion with Moses. The Jews, who lived their golden age in and around Jerusalem during the David and Solomon periods, also built the Temple, which was at the center of their religious life. The Jews, who rebuilt the Temple during the Babylonian exile and subsequently Ezra's reign, lived in these lands until the destruction of the temple by the Romans in 70 AD. The statelessness that started after the destruction of the temple had an important place in the Jewish identity. The exile life, which continued for two thousand years, caused the Jews to go to different parts of the world and live there. In this period, which is expressed as the period of exile, Jews lived in many regions such as Africa, Anatolia, Europe and America. The arrival of the Jews in the Americas dates back to the Columbus era. Jews were present in South America and subsequently in the British colonies. Currently, most of the Jews in the world live in the USA. Among the Jews who went to the Americas, Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews constitute the majority. However, in the Americas, Jews have formed different groups over time. These include groups such as Conservative, Orthodox, Reformist, and Reconstructionist. Jewish groups formed by African-Americans also have a special place among these formations. These African-American Jews in the USA, are discussed within the framework of this article. In the article, firstly, a piece of brief information about Judaism in America was given, and then the relations between Blacks and Jews were discussed. Afterward, the main features of these formations, which are of African origin and consider themselves the descendants of the Israelites, are emphasized. Finally, the Jewish groups established by Black Jews were contacted and if they had different practices and beliefs from the others, they were included. The research was carried out based on the literature review and information was given about the prominent black Jewish groups.

Keywords

• Black
• Negro
• Afro-Americans
• Jewish
• Falasha.

Afro-Amerikalı Yahudiler

Abstract

Amerika kıtasına Yahudilerin ulaşması, Kolomb dönemine kadar götürülmektedir. Güney Amerika’da, akabinde de İngiliz kolonilerinde Yahudiler varlık göstermiştir. Hali hazırda dünya üzerindeki Yahudilerin büyük bir kısmı da ABD’de yaşamaktadır. ABD’deki Yahudi oluşumları içinde özel bir yere sahip olan Siyahi Yahudiler, bu makale çerçevesinde ele alınmış, Afrika kökenli ve kendilerini İsariloğullarının torunları kabul eden bu oluşumların temel özellikleri üzerinde durulmuştur. Makalede ilk olarak Amerika’da Yahudilik hakkında kısa bir bilgi verilmiş, akabinde ise Siyahiler ile Yahudiler arasındaki münasebetler ele alınmıştır. Daha sonra Siyahi Yahudiler tarafından kurulan Yahudi gruplar ele alınmış, bu grupların diğer Yahudilerden farklı uygulama ve inançlarına değinilmiştir. Araştırma literatür taramasına dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilmiştir.

Keywords

• Siyahi
• Zenci
• Afro-Amerikalı
• Yahudi
• Falaşa

References

1. ADL, Anti-Defamation League. “Extremist Sects Within the Black Hebrew Israelite Movement”. Erişim 15.04.2022. https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounders/extremist-sects-within-the-black-hebrew-israelite-movement
2. AJC, American Jewish Committee Archives. “American Jewish Year Book”. Erişim 20.04.2022. http://ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/1899_1900_3_SpecialArticles.pdf
3. Aydın, Ravza. “Mizrahi Yahudileri ve İsrail’deki Sosyokültürel Durum”. SAUIFD. 20/37, 81-105.
4. Aykıt, Dursun Ali. “Falashas or Ethiopian Jews”. Milel ve Nihal. 11/2 (2014), 35-60.
5. Başaran, İsmail. “Amerikan Yahudiliği Tarihi Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme”. Mizanü’l-Hak İslami İlimler Dergisi. 9 (Aralık 2019), 127-140.
6. Bedasse, Monique. “Rasta Evolution: The Theology of the Twelve Tribes of Israel”. Journal of Black Studies. 40/5 (MAY 2010), 960-973.
7. Ben-Ur, Aviva. “Sephardic Jews in America”. Encyclopedia of American Jewish History. Ed. Eunice G. Pollack-Stephen H. Norwood. 1-9. California: ABC-CLIO Inc, 2008.
8. Bleich, J. David. “Black Jews: A Halakhic Perspective”. Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought. 15/1/2 (Spring-Summer 1975), 48-79.

9. Britannica. “Black Hebrew Israelites”. Erişim 05.11.2021. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Black-Hebrew-Israelites
10. Brotz, Howard M. “Negro "Jews" in the United States”. Phylon (1940-1956). 13/4 (4th Qtr. 1952), 324-337.
11. Brotz, Howard M. The Black Jews of Harlem. New York: Schocken Books,1970.
12. Chapman, Daniel Ethan. “Jewish Identity in White and Black”. Examining Social Theory: Crossing Borders/Reflecting Back. Ed. Daniel Ethan Chapman. 355/115-130. New York: Peter Lang Inc., 2010.
13. Chireau, Yvonne. “Black Culture and Black Zion African American Religious Encounters with Judaism, 1790-1930, an Overview”. Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism. Ed. Yvonne Chireau-Nathaniel Deutsch. 15-32. New York: Oxford Oxford University Press, 2000.
14. COGASOC, Church of God and Saints of Christ. “Chief Rabbi Phillip E. McNeil”. Erişim 10.04.2022. https://www.cogasoc.org/leaders/chief-rabbi-phillip-e-mcneil/
15. COGASOC, Church of God and Saints of Christ. “This We Believe”. Erişim 10.04.2022. https://www.cogasoc.org/about/this-we-believe-2/
16. Dorman, Jacob S. Chosen People: The Rise of American Black Israelite Religions. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
17. Friss, Evan. “Blacks, Jews, and Civil Rights Law in New York, 1895-1913”. Journal of American Ethnic History. 24/4 (Summer 2005), 70-99.
18. Gold, Roberta S. “The Black Jews of Harlem: Representation, Identity, and Race, 1920-1939”. American Quarterly. 55/2 (June 2003), 179-225.
19. Greenberg, Cheryl. “Black Jewish Relations in The United States”, Encyclopedia of Judaica. Ed. Fred Skolnik. 3/734-737. USA: Thomson Gale, 2007.
20. Gürkan, Salime Leyla. Yahudilik. İstanbul: İsam Yay., 2008.
21. Haynes, Bruce D. The Soul of Judaism Jews of African Descent in America. New York: New York University Press, 2008.
22. Hudson, Winthrop S. Religion in America. New York: Macmillian Pub. Com. 1981.
23. ISUPK, The Israeli School of Universal Practical Knowledge. “ISUPK National Programs”. Erişim 15.04.2022. https://isupk.com/isupk-programs/
24. Kemeyer, Julia Corbett. Religion in America. New Jersey: Pearson, 2005.
25. Kertzer, Morris N. “What is a Jew?”. Religions of America. Ed.Leo Rosten. 142-156. New York: Touchstone Book Pub, 1975.
26. Key, Andre E. “Toward a Typology of Black Hebrew Religious Thought and Practice”. Journal of Africana Religions. 2/1 (2014), 31-66.
27. Levy, Sholomo Ben. “Judaism”, Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History, Ed. Colin A. Palmer. 3/1221-1224. USA: Thomson Gale, Second Edition, 2006.
28. O'Connor, Kathleen Malone. “The Nubian Islaamic Hebrews, Ansaaru Allah Community Jewish Teachings of an African American Muslim Community”. Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism. Ed. Yvonne Chireau-Nathaniel Deutsch. 118-152. New York: Oxford Oxford University Press, 2000.
29. Parfitt, Tudor. Black Jews in Africa and the Americas. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013.
30. Pencak, William. “American Jews in the Colonial Period”. Encyclopedia of American Jewish History. Ed. Eunice G. Pollack-Stephen H. Norwood. 9-15. California: ABC-CLIO Inc, 2008.
31. PRC, Pew Research Center. “Faith Among Black Americans”. Erişim 11.02.2022 pewforum.org/2021/02/16/faith-among-black-americans/
32. PRC, Pew Research Center. “The size of the US Jewish Population”. Erişim 11.05.2022 pewforum.org/2021/05/11/the-size-of-the-u-s-jewish-population/
33. Roof, Wade Clark – McKinney, William. American Mainline Religion. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987.
34. Roth, Cecil. “America”. Encyclopedia of Judaica. Ed. Fred Skolnik. 1/41-46. USA: Thomson Gale, 2007.
35. Schorsch, Jonathan. “Revisiting Blackness, Slavery, and Jewishness in the Early Modern Sephardic Atlantic”. Religious Changes and Cultural Transformations in the Early Modern Western Sephardic Communities. Ed. Yosef Kaplan. 512-540. Leiden: Brill Pub. 2019.
36. SPLC, Southern Poverty Law Center. “General Yahanna’ Discusses Black Supremacist Hebrew Israelites”. Erişim 12.04.2022. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2008/%E2%80%98general-yahanna%E2%80%99-discusses-black-supremacist-hebrew-israelites
37. SPLC, Southern Poverty Law Center. “History of Hebrew Israelism”. Erişim 12.04.2022. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2015/history-hebrew-israelism.
38. Staub, Jacob J. “Reconstructionist Judaism”. Encyclopedia of American Jewish History. Ed. Eunice G. Pollack-Stephen H. Norwood. 89-96. California: ABC-CLIO Inc, 2008.
39. Sussman, Lance J. “Reform Judaism”. Encyclopedia of American Jewish History. Ed. Eunice G. Pollack-Stephen H. Norwood. 74-82. California: ABC-CLIO Inc, 2008.
40. Wolfson, Bernard J. “African American Jews Dispelling Myths, Bridging the Divide”. Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism, Ed. Yvonne Chireau-Nathaniel Deutsch. 33-54. New York: Oxford Oxford University Press, 2000.
41. Yahweh ben Yahweh. “The Feast of Yahweh”. Erişim 13.04.2022. https://www.yahwehbenyahweh.com/The_Feasts_of_Yahweh/
42. Yahweh ben Yahweh. “The Nation of Yahweh”. Erişim 13.04.2022. https://www.yahwehbenyahweh.com/The_Nation_of_Yahweh/
43. Yahweh ben Yahweh. “The Sabbath”. Erişim 13.04.2022. https://www.yahwehbenyahweh.com/The_Sabbath/
44. Zanfagna, Christina. “Roads to Zion: Hip Hop’s Search for the City Yet to Come”. Holy Hip Hop in the City of Angels. 128-144. USA: University of California Press, 2017.