Gelişimsel Dil Bozukluğu Olan Vakaların Klinik Yönetimi: Nitel Bir Çalışma

Year 2023, Volume: 6 Issue: 3, 219 - 267, 30.12.2023

Selin Tokalak İbrahim Can Yaşa

https://doi.org/10.58563/dkyad-2023.63.1

Abstract

Amaç: Bu çalışma, gelişimsel dil bozukluğu (GDB) olan çocuklar için Türkiye’deki dil ve konuşma terapistlerinin (DKT) ayırıcı tanı ve müdahale konularındaki çözüm odaklı yaklaşımlarına ilişkin bilgi vermeyi amaçlamaktadır.

Yöntem: Araştırmada niteliksel bir paradigma içinde, yapılandırmacı bir yaklaşım kullanılmıştır. Fenomenoloji, DKT'lerin GDB'li çocuklara dil ve konuşma terapisi sağlamasını keşfetmek için ana araştırma metodolojisi olarak benimsenmiştir. Analitik yaklaşım olarak ise yorumlayıcı fenomenoloji seçilmiştir. Araştırmaya mesleki deneyim süresi 2 – 16 yıl arasında değişen 15 DKT katılmıştır.

Bulgular: Bulgular, DKT'lerin GDB'nin ayırıcı tanısı için formal bir değerlendirme yöntemi olarak sıklıkla geçerlik ve güvenirliği yüksek, standardize bir değerlendirme aracı olan Türkçe Erken Dil Gelişimi Testi (TEDİL) ile klinik içi gözlem ve genellikle vaka geçmişi ile tamamlanan çeşitli informal değerlendirmeler kullandığını göstermektedir. Müdahale seçimi, bireye neyin hitap ettiğine, yaşına neyin uygun olduğuna, spesifik tanı ve bozukluğun şiddetine göre belirlenmektedir. DKT'lere göre ebeveynler ayırıcı tanı ve müdahalede kritik rol oynamaktadır.

Sonuç: Bu bulgular, GDB alanında ayırıcı tanının açık ve tutarlı bir terminolojisine (a), günlük yaşama katılımı değerlendirmek için hızlı ve uygulaması kolay (b), kapsamlı bir ayırıcı tanı aracına, mevcut değerlendirme araçlarının güncellenmesine (c) ve GDB’ye yönelik kanıt temelli müdahale yaklaşımlarının tercih edilmesini teşvik edici uygulamaların (d) veya eğitimlerin yaygınlaştırılmasına olan ihtiyacı ortaya koymaktadır.

Keywords

Gelişim dil bozukluğu, Terapist yaklaşımları, Klinik değerlendirme, Müdahale, Klinik yönetim

Clinical Management of Developmental Language Disorders: A Qualitative Study

Abstract

Purpose: This study aims to provide insights into the solution-focused approaches of speech and language therapists (SLTs) in Turkey concerning clinical diagnosis and intervention for children with developmental language disorder (DLD).

Method: The qualitative research method was chosen aiming for an in-depth exploration of the mentioned subject and to reach different, previously unexplored areas. Employing a qualitative paradigm and a constructivist approach, phenomenology was adopted as the primary research methodology to explore how SLTs provided therapy to children with DLD. Interpretative phenomenology was selected as the analytical approach, as it went beyond describing the phenomena (i.e., descriptive phenomenology) and aimed to uncover the embedded, often unconscious, meanings in everyday life practices. 15 SLTs with professional experience ranging from 2 to 16 years participated in the research. The data for the research was collected through semi-structured interviews which were transcribed into written text to create the dataset. To ensure the consistency of data analysis, the data was analyzed by an expert in the field other than the researchers.

Results: The findings indicated that SLTs frequently used the Turkish version of the Test of Early Language Development (TEDİL), observations, and various informal assessments often complemented by the case history in the diagnosis of DLD. Among other formal assessment tools mentioned by SLTs for assessing DLD in their clinical practices were the Turkish version of the Test of Language Development-Primary (TODİL), Ankara Development Inventory (AGTE), Turkish version of MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory (TİGE), and Turkish Expressive and Receptive Language Test (TİFALDİ). In addition, a significant majority of the participants expressed dissatisfaction with formal assessment tools for evaluating DLD. In response to this situation, the suggestions were offered for the revision of existing tests in terms of the visuals included or for the development of formal assessment tools specifically targeting more specific age ranges for evaluation. The choice of intervention was determined according to whether the intervention appealed to the individual with DLD, the intervention was appropriate to the age as well as the specific diagnosis and severity of the disorder. According to SLTs, parents played a crucial role in the diagnosis and intervention process. However, the parents expressed that this critical role assigned to parents was often not provided at the desired level.

Conclusion: These findings underscore the need for a clear and consistent terminology of differential diagnosis in the field of DLD (a), a quick and easy-to-apply comprehensive differential diagnostic tool to assess participation in daily life (b), updating existing assessment tools (c), and the dissemination of practices or trainings (d) that encourage the adoption of evidence-based intervention approaches for DLD.

Keywords

Developmental language disorder, Therapists' preferences, Clinical assessment, Intervention, Clinical Management

Thanks

Yazarlar, yardımları için Bahçeşehir Üniversitesi Dil ve Konuşma Terapisi bölümü öğrencilerinden Berru Nur Demir’e, Duru Dicle Tatar’a, Ece Deniz Dönertaş’a, Ecem Altuner’e, Eda Nur Suluk’a, Yaren Güven’e ve araştırmaya gönüllü olarak katılmayı kabul eden DKT’lere teşekkürlerini iletmektedir.

References

• Allen, M.M. (2013). Intervention efficacy and intensity for children with speech sound disorder. Journal of Speech Language Hearing Research, 56(3), 865–877.
• Altıntaş, M. (2014). Çocuklar İçin Zihin Kuramı Test Bataryası’nın 4-5 yaş Türk çocuklarına uyarlanması, geçerlik güvenirlik çalışması [Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi]. Haliç Üniversitesi.
• Aksu-Koç, A., Küntay, A.C. ve Acarlar, F. (2011) Türkçe’de Erken Sözcük ve Dilbilgisi Gelişimini Ölçme ve Değerlendirme Çalışması: Türkçe İletişim gelişimi Envanterleri: TİGIE-I ve TİGIE-II, TÜBİTAK 107KO58 Projesi Sonuç Raporu.
• APA, American Psychiatric Association. (2013). DSM-5 diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5. baskı; American Psychiatric Association: Arlington, VA, ABD.
• Beitchman, J. H., Wilson, B., Johnson, L., Atkinson, L., Young, A., Adlaf, E. ve Douglas, L. (2001). Fourteen year follow-up of speech/language impaired and control children: Psychiatric outcome. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(1), 75–82.
• Bishop, D.M.V. & Edmunson, A. (1987). Specific Language Impairment as a maturational lag: Evidence from longitudinal data on language and motor development. Development Medicine Child Neurology, 29, 442–459. Bishop, D.M.V. (1997). Pre- and perinatal hazards and family background in children with specific language impairments: A study of twins. Brain and Language, 56, 1–26.
• Bishop, D. V. M. (2004). Specific language impairment: Diagnostic dilemmas. In L. Verhoeven & H. van Balkom (Eds.), Classification of developmental language disorders (s. 309–326).
• Bishop, D. V. M., Snowling, M. J., Thompson, P. A. ve Greenhalgh, T., the CATALISE Consortium. (2016). CATALISE: A multinational and multidisciplinary Delphi consensus study. Identifying language impairments in children. PLoS One, 11(12).
• Bishop, D.M.V. (2017). Why is it so hard to reach agreement on terminology? The case of developmental language disorder (DLD). International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 52(6), 671-680.
• Bishop, D.M.V., Snowling, M.G., Thompson, P.A. ve Greenhalgh, T., The Catalise-2 Consortium. (2017). Phase 2 of CATALISE: A multinational and multidisciplinary Delphi consensus study of problems with language development: Terminology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58, 1068–1080.
• Brumbaugh, K. & Smit, A. B. (2013). Treating children ages 3–6 who have speech-sound disorder: a survey. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 44(3), 306–319.
• Catts, H.W., Fey, M.E., Tomblin, J.B. ve Zhang, X. A. (2002). A longitudinal investigation of reading outcomes in children with language impairments. Journal of Speech Language Hearing Research, 45(6), 1142–1157.
• Cirrin, F. M., & Gillam, R. B. (2008). Language intervention practices for school-age children with spoken language disorders: A systematic review. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 39(1), S110.
• Charmaz, K. (2011). Grounded theory methods in social justice research. The Sage Handbook Of Qualitative Research, 4(1), 359-380.
• Chilosi, A.M., Pfanner, L., Pecini, C., Salvadorini, R., Casalini, C., Brizzolara, D. ve Cipriani, P. (2019). Which linguistic measures distinguish transient from persistent language problems in Late Talkers from 2 to 4 years? A study on Italian speaking children. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 89, 59–68.
• Clegg, J., Hollis, C., Mawhood, L., ve Rutter, M. (2005). Developmental language disorders – A follow-up in later adult life. Cognitive, language and psychosocial outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(2), 128–149.
• Cohen, W., Hodson, A., O’Hare, A., Boyle, J., Durrani, T., McCartney, E. ve Watson, J. (2005). Effects of computer-based intervention through acoustically modified speech (Fast ForWord) in severe mixed receptive-expressive language impairment. Journal of Speech Language Hearing. Research, 48(3), 715–729.
• Collis, J. & Bloch, S. (2012). Survey of UK speech and lan- guage therapists’ assessment and treatment practices for people with progressive dysarthria. Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 47(6), 725–737.
• Conti-Ramsden, G., & Botting, N. (2004). Social difficulties and victimisation in children with SLI at 11 years of age. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 47(1), 145–161.
• Conti-Ramsden, G., St Clair, M.C., Pickles, A. ve Durkin, K. (2012). Developmental trajectories of verbal and nonverbal skills in individuals with a history of specific language impairment: From childhood to adolescence. Journal of Speech Language Hearing. Research, 55(6), 1716–1735.
• Conti-Ramsden, G., Mok, P.L., Pickles, A. ve Durkin, K. (2023). Adolescents with a history of specific language impairment (SLI): Strengths and difficulties in social, emotional and behavioral functioning. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(11), 4161–4169.
• Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research Design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. New York: Sage.
• Curtis, P. R., Kaiser, A. P., Estabrook, R., ve Roberts, M. Y. (2019). The longitudinal effects of early language intervention on children’s problem behaviors. Child Development, 90(2), 576–592.
• Dawes, E., Leitão, S., Claessen, M., ve Kane, R. (2019). A randomized controlled trial of an oral inferential comprehension intervention for young children with developmental language disorder. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 35(1), 39–54.
• De Oliveira, L. C. & Westerlund, R. (2021). A functional approach to language development for dual language learners. Journal of English Learner Education, 1(12), 1–23.
• Diaz-Williams, P. (2013). Using Movement Homework Activities to Enhance the Phonological Skills of Children Whose Primary Communication Difficulty is a Phonological Disorder. Doktora tezi, Texas Woman’s University, Denton, TX, ABD.
• Duinmeijer, I., de Jong, J., ve Scheper, A. (2012). Narrative abilities, memory and attention in children with a specific language impairment. International Journal of Language Communication Disorders, 47(5), 542–555.
• Durkin, K., Mok, P.L.H., ve Conti-Ramsden, G. (2013). Severity of specific language impairment predicts delayed development in number skills. Frontiers In Psychology, 4, 1–10.
• Eadie, T. L., Yorkston, K. M., ve Amtmann, D. (2006). Measuring communicative participation: A review of self- report instruments in speech-language pathology. American Journal of Speech and Language Pathology, 15(4), 307–320.
• Ebbels, S. (2014). Introducing the SLI debate. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 49(4), 377–380.
• Ergin, T. (2003). Bilişsel değerlendirme sistemi (cognitive assessment system-cas) beş yaş çocukları üzerinde geçerlik, güvenirlik ve norm çalışması [Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi], İstanbul Üniversitesi, İstanbul.
• Favot, K., Carter, M. ve Stephenson, J. (2020). The effects of oral narrative intervention on the narratives of children with language disorder: A systematic literature review. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 33, 489-536.
• Fey, M.E., Leonard, L.B., Bredin-Oja, S.L. ve Deevy, P. (2017). A Clinical evaluation of the competing sources of input hypothesis. Journal of Speech Language Hearing. Research, 60(1), 104–120.
• Finestack, L.H. & Fey, M.E. (2009). Evaluation of a deductive procedure to teach grammatical inflections to children with language impairment. American Journal of Speech Language Pathology, 18, 289–302.
• Finestack, L.H. (2018). Evaluation of an explicit intervention to teach novel grammatical forms to children with developmental language disorder. Journal of Speech Language Hearing. Research, 61(8), 2062–2075.
• Finlay, J.C.S. & McPhillips, M. (2013). Comorbid motor deficits in a clinical sample of children with specific language impairment. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(9), 2533–2542.
• Fisher S.E., Lai C.S. ve Monaco A.P. (2003). Deciphering the genetic basis of speech and language disorders. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 26(1), 57-80.
• Gaffney T. (2021). Speech-Language Pathologists’ Practices of Parental Involvement in Paediatric Speech and Language Intervention Funded by the National Disability Insurance Scheme. [Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi]. University of Canterbury, Christchurch, Yeni Zelanda.
• Gillam, R.B., Loeb, D.F., Hoffman, L.M., Bohman, T., Champlin, C.A., Thibodeau, L. ve Friel-Patti, S. (2008). The efficacy of Fast ForWord language intervention in school-age children with language impairment: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Speech Language Hearing. Research, 51, 97–119.
• Gökçümen, G. (2014). 18-35 aylık çocukların erken sözcük dağarcığı gelişimlerinin Dil Gelişim Tarama (DİLTAR) ile değerlendirilmesi. Yüksek Lisans Dönem Projesi, Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi, Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
• Hagoort, P. (2016). MUC (Memory, Unification, Control): A model on the neurobiology of language beyond single word processing. İçinde Hickok, G. & & Small, S.L. (Ed), Neurobiology of language içinde (s. 339 – 347). Academic Press.
• Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. (2014). Halliday’s introduction to functional grammar (4. baskı)
• Hammill, D. D., & Newcomber, P. L. (2008). Test of Language Development–Primary: Fourth Edition. Pro-Ed.
• Hancock, A., Northcott, S., Hobson, H. ve Clarke, M. (2022). Speech, language and communication needs and mental health: The experiences of speech and language therapists and mental health professionals. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 1–15.
• Haynes, C. & Naidoo, S. (1991). Children with specific speech and language impairment. İçinde Clinics in developmental medicine, 119, 1–11. MacKeith Press.
• Hund-Reid, C. & Schneider, P. (2013). Effectiveness of phonological awareness intervention for kindergarten children with language impairment. Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, 37(1), 6-25 . Hutchins, T. L., Prelock, P. A., Chace, W. (2008). Test-retest reliability of a theory of mind task battery for children with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 23(4), 195-206.
• Jesus, L.M., Martinez, J., Santos, J., Hall, A. ve Joffe, V. (2019). Comparing traditional and tablet-based intervention for children with speech sound disorders: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 62(11), 4045–4061.
• Joffe, V. & Pring, T. (2008). Children with phonological problems: a survey of clinical practice. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 43(2), 154–164.
• Johnson C.J. (2006). Getting started in evidence-based practice for childhood speech-language disorders. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 15, 20–35.
• Kaiser, A. P., & Roberts, M. Y. (2011). Advances in early communication and language intervention. Journal of Early Intervention, 33(4), 298–309.
• Kazak-Berument, S., & Güven, A. G., (2013). Türkçe İfade Edici ve Alıcı Dil (TİFALDİ) Testi: I. Alıcı dil Kelime Alt Testi Standardizsayon ve Güvenilirlik Geçerlik Çalışması. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 24(3), 192- 201.
• Law, J., Boyle, J., Harris, F., Harkness, A., Nye, C. (2000). Prevalence and natural history of primary speech and language delay: Findings from a systematic review of the literature. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 35, 165–188.
• Laws, G. & Bishop, D.V.M. (2003). A comparison of language abilities in adolescents with Down Syndrome and children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech Language Hearing. Research., 46, 1324–1339.
• Law, J., Rush, R., Schoon, I., Parsons, S. (2009). Modeling developmental language difficulties from school entry into adulthood: Literacy, mental health, and employment outcomes. Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 52, 1401–1416. Leonard, L.B., Sabbadini, L., Volterra, V. (1987). Specific language impairment in children: A cross-linguistic study. Brain and Language, 32(2), 233–252.
• Lopez, K. & Willis, D. (2004). Descriptive versus interpretive phenomenology: their contributions to nursing knowledge. Qualitative Health Research, 14(5), 726–735.
• Lousada, M., Jesus, L.M., Capelas, S., Margaca, C., Simoes, D., Valente, A., Hall, A., Joffe, V.L. (2013). Phonological and articulation treatment approaches in Portuguese children with speech and language impairments: A randomized controlled intervention study. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 48(2), 172–187.
• Lum, J.A., Conti-Ramsden, G., Page, G., Ullman, D.M.T. (2012). Working, declarative and procedural memory in specific language impairment. Cortex, 48(9), 1138–1154.
• Maggiolo, M., Pavez, M.M., Coloma, C.J. (2003). Terapia para eldesarrollo narrativo en niños con trastornoespecífico del lenguaje (İng. tercüme: Narrative intervention for children with specific language impairment). Revista de Logopedia Foniatria y Audiologia, 23(2), 98–108.
• Nelson, N. W., Plante, E., Helm-Estabrooks, N., & Hotz, G. (2016). Test of Integrated Language and Literacy Skills (TILLS). Brookes. Nitido H. ve Plante E. (2020). Diagnosis of developmental language disorder in research studies. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 63(8), 2777–2788.
• Onwuegbuzie, A. J. ve Collins, K. M. (2007). A typology of mixed methods sampling designs in social science research. The Qualitative Report, 12(2), 281-316.
• Pankratz, M., Morrison, A., & Plante, E. (2004). Difference in standard scores of adults on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Tests (Revize edilmiş 3. basım). Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47(3), 714–718.
• Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3. baskı). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods: Integrating Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Petersen, D.B. (2011). A systematic review of narrative-based language intervention with children who have language impairment. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 32, 207–220.
• Plante, E., Ogilive, T., Vance, R., Aguilar, J.M., Dailey, N.S., Meyers, C., Lieser, A.M. ve Burton, R. (2013). Variability in the language input to children enhances learning in a treatment context. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 23, 530–545.
• Rapin, I. (2006). Language heterogeneity and regression in the autism spectrum disorders—Overlaps with other childhood language regression syndromes. Clinical Neuroscience Research, 6, 209–218.
• Reilly, S., Tomblin, B., Law, J., Mc Kean, C., Mensah, F.K., Morgan, A., Goldfeld, S., Nicholson, J.M. ve Wake, M. (2014). Specific language impairment: A convenient label for whom? International Journal of Language Communication Disorders, 49(4), 416–451.
• Rescorla, L. (2002). Language and reading outcomes to age 9 in late-talking toddlers. Journal of Speech Language Hearing Research, 45, 360–371.
• Rescorla, L. (2011). Late talkers: Do good predictors of outcome exist? Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews., 17, 141–150.
• Rescorla, L. & Alley, A. (2001). Validation of the language development survey (LDS): A parent report tool for identifying language delay in toddlers. Journal of Speech Language Hearing Research, 44, 434–445.
• Rescorla, L. (2009). Age 17 language and reading outcomes in late-talking toddlers: Support for a dimensional perspective on language delay. Journal of Speech Language Hearing Research, 52, 16–30.
• Rice, M. L., & Wexler, K. (2001). Rice/Wexler Test of Early Grammatical Impairment. The Psychological Corporation.
• Rinaldi, S., Caselli, M.C., Cofelice, V., D’Amico, S., De Cagno, A.G., Della Corte, G., Di Martino, M.V., Di Costanzo, B., Levorato, M.C., Penge, R., Tiziana, R., Sansavini, A., Vecchi, S. ve Zoccolotti, P. (2021). Efficacy of the Treatment of Developmental Language Disorder: A Systematic Review. Brain Sci., 11, 407.
• Roberts, M.Y & Kaiser, A.P. (2012). Assessing the effects of a parent-implemented language intervention for children with language impairments using empirical benchmarks: A pilot study. Journal of Speech Language Hearing Research, 55, 1655–1670.
• Roden, I., Früchtenicht, K., Kreutz, G., Linderkamp, F. ve Grube, D. (2019). Auditory stimulation training with technically manipulated musical material in preschool children with specific language impairments: An explorative study. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2026.
• Romski, M, Sevcik, RA, Adamson, LB, Smith, A, Cheslock, M. ve Bakeman, R. (2011). Parent Perceptions of the Language Development of Toddlers With Developmental Delays Before and After Participation in Parent- Coached Language Interventions. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 20(2), 111.
• Rudolph, J.M. (2017). Case history risk factors for specific language impairment: A systematic review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 26(3), 991–1010.
• Sansavini, A., Favilla, M. E., Guasti, M. T., Marini, A., Millepiedi, S., Di Martino, M. V. ve Lorusso, M. L. (2021).
• Developmental Language Disorder: Early predictors, age for the diagnosis, and diagnostic tools: A scoping review. Brain Sciences, 11(5), 654.
• Savaşır, I., Sezgin, N. ve Erol, N. (1995) Ankara Gelişim Tarama Envanteri El Kitabı. Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi.
• Scheper, A., Rodenburg-Van Wee, M., Van Veen, J., Weterings, N. ve Van Alphen, P. (2019). Handleiding Jules voor TOS: Kentalis methodiek voor groepsbehandeling van jonge kinderen met een taalontwikkelingsstoornis [Manual Jules for DLD: Kentalis methodology for group intervention for young children with Developmental Language Disorders]. Royal Dutch Kentalis: Internal publication.
• Schreibman, L., Dawson, G., Stahmer, A.C., Landa, R., Rogers, S.J. ve McGee, G.G. (2015). Naturalistic developmental behavioral interventions: Empirically validated treatments for autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(8), 2411-2428.
• Serry, T. A. & Liamputtong P. (2017). The in-depth interviewing method in health. İçinde: Research Methods in Health: Foundations for Evidence-Based Practice, 3. Baskı, Melbourne, VIC: Oxford University Press.
• Smeets, D.J.H., van Dijken, M.J. ve Bus, A.G. (2014). Using electronic storybooks to support word learning in children with severe language impairments. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47(5), 435–449.
• Smith-Lock, K.M., Leitão, S., Lambert, L. ve Nickels, L. (2013). Effective intervention for expressive grammar in children with specific language impairment. International Journal of Language Communication Disorders 48(3), 265–282.
• Smith, J. A. & Osborn, M. (2008). Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide to Research Methods (London: SAGE).
• Snowling, M.J., Duff, F.J., Nash, H.M. ve Hulme, C. (2016). Language profiles and literacy outcomes of children with resolving, emerging, or persisting language impairments. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 57(12),, 1360–1369.
• Snowling, M.J., Bishop, D.V.M., Stothard, S.E., Chipchase, B. ve Kaplan, C. (2006). Psychosocial outcomes at 15 years of children with a preschool history of speech-language impairment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry., 47(8), 759–765.
• Spaulding, T.J., Plante, E. ve Farinella, K.A. (2006). Eligibility criteria for language impairment: Is the low end of normal always appropriate? Language Speech and Hearing. Services in Schools., 37, 61–72.
• Thomas, S., Schulz J. ve Ryder N. (2019). Assessment and diagnosis of developmental language disorder: the experiences of speech and language therapists. Autism & Developmental Language Impairments. 4, 1–12.
• Tipik ve Atipik Popülasyonlarda İletişim ve Dil Edinimi Çalışmaları (TAPİDÇ). İtalyan Konuşma Terapistleri Federasyonu (Eds.) Birincil Dil Bozukluğu Konusunda Uzlaşı Konferansı, (TAPİDÇ).: Roma, İtalya, 2019; s. 1–58. Erişim: https://www.disturboprimariolinguaggio.it/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Documento-Finale-Consensus-Conference- 2.pdf (Erişim 15 Haziran 2022).
• Tomas, E., & Vissers, C. (2019). Behind the scenes of developmental language disorder: Time to call neuropsychology back on stage. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12, 517.
• Tomblin, J.B. (2008). Validating diagnostic standards for specific language impairment using adolescent outcomes. İçinde Understanding Developmental Language Disorders: From Theory to Practice. Psychology Press: Norbury, C.F., Tomblin, J.B. ve Bishop, D.V.M., 93–114.
• Tomblin, J. B., Freese, P., ve Records, N. (1992). Diagnosing specific language impairment in adults for the purpose of pedigree analysis. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 35(4), 832–843.
• Tomblin, J.B., Zhang, X., Buckwalter, P. ve Catts, H. (2000). The association of reading disability, behavioral disorders, and language impairment among second-grade children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(4), 473–482.
• Tomblin, J.B., Zhang, X., Buckwalter, P. ve O’Brien, M. (2003). The stability of primary language disorder: Four years after kindergarten diagnosis. Journal of Speech Language Hearing Research, 46, 1283–1296.
• Topbaş, S. & Güven, O.S. (2013). Türkçe Erken Dil Gelişimi Testi (TEDİL), Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara.
• Topbaş, S. & Güven, O.S. (2017). Türkçe Okul Çağı Dil Gelişimi Testi (TODİL), Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara. Tracy, S. J. (2012). Qualitative research methods: Collecting evidence, crafting analysis, communicating impact. Chichester: Wiley.
• Ullman, M., & Pierpont, E. (2005). Specific language impairment is not specific to language: The procedural deficit hypothesis. Cortex, 41(3), 399–433.
• Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., Rashotte, C. A., ve Pearson, N. A. (1999). Comprehensive test of phonological processing: CTOPP. TX: Pro-ed.
• Wake, M., Tobin, S., Levickis, P., Ukoumunne, O.C., Zens, N., Goldfeld, S., Le, H., Law, J. ve Reilly, S. (2015). Two-year outcomes of a population-based intervention for preschool language delay: An RCT. Pediatrics, 136(4), e838–e847.
• Wallace, I.F., Berkman, N.D., Watson, L.R., Coyne-Beasley, T., Wood, C.T., Cullen, K. ve Lohr, K.N. (2015). Screening for speech and language delay in children 5 years old and younger: A systematic review. Pediatrics, 136(2), 1–15.
• Watson, R. M., & Pennington, L. (2015). Assessment and management of the communication difficulties of children with cerebral palsy: A UK survey of SLT practice. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 50(2), 241–259.
• West, W. (2001). Beyond Grounded theory: the use of a heuristic approach to qualitative research. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 1(2), 126-131.
• Wiig, E. H., Secord, W. A., ve Semel, E. (2013). Clinical evaluation of language fundamentals: CELF-5. Pearson. Wren, Y. & Roulstone, S. A. (2008). Comparison between computer and tabletop delivery of phonology therapy. International Journal of Speech -Language Pathology, 10, 346–363.
• Wright, E. (2014). Special educational needs provision in the real world. Commentary on Reilly S., Tomblin B., Law J., McKean C., Mensah F.K., Morgan A., Goldfield S., Nicholson J.M. and Wake M., 2014, Specific language impairment: A convenient label for whom? International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 49, 416–451.
• Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H. (2018). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. Seçkin Yayınları.
• Yoder, P., Camarata, S. ve Gardner,E. (2005). Treatment effects on speech intelligibility and length of utterance in children with specific language and intelligibility impairments. Journal of Early Intervention, 28, 34–49.
• Yoder, P.J., Molfese, D. ve Gardner, E. (2012). Initial mean length of utterance predicts the relative efficacy of two grammatical treatments in preschoolers with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech Language Hearing Research, 54, 1170–1181.
• Zambrana, I.M., Pons, F., Eadie, P. ve Ystrom, E. (2014). Trajectories of language delay from age 3 to 5: Persistence, recovery and late onset. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders., 49, 304–316.