Spatial variability of cotton potassium nutrition in relation to soil cations in agricultural fields

Year 2025, Volume: 14 Issue: 4, 398 - 406, 01.10.2025

Halil Aytop , Cafer Hakan Yılmaz , Ömer Faruk Demir

https://doi.org/10.18393/ejss.1759801

Abstract

The adequacy of potassium (K) in plants is influenced not only by the amount of extractable K in the soil, but also by the presence and balance of other essential cations such as magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca). However, Mg and Ca are often overlooked in soil fertility assessments. Therefore, this research aimed to investigate K availability in cotton-growing agricultural soils, examine potential K deficiencies induced by high Mg and Ca levels, and map their spatial distribution. The research was conducted in the Amik Plain of Hatay Province, located in the easternmost part of Türkiye’s Mediterranean region. Ammonium acetate extraction for soils and wet digestion for plant tissues were used to determine K, Ca, and Mg contents. Relationships between soil and plant parameters were analyzed using Pearson’s correlation, while spatial trends of potassium deficiency linked to high Ca and Mg were modeled through Kriging interpolation. The results revealed that soil Ca and Mg levels were considerably higher than K, which adversely affected plant K uptake. K/Mg and K/Ca ratios in soil were found to range between 0.04–1.02 and 0.02–0.14, respectively. Leaf K concentrations varied between 0.47% and 3.25%, indicating widespread K deficiency. Contrary to the common assumption that soils rich in K do not cause deficiency, the findings showed that 57.1% of cotton plants grown in K-rich soils exhibited hidden K deficiency. Therefore, K/Ca, K/Mg, and K/(Ca+Mg) ratios should be considered when evaluating K availability in soils with high extractable K.

Keywords

Amik Plain , hidden hunger , Kriging , K/Ca ratio , K/Mg ratio , sources of K deficiency.

References

• Anonymous 1, 2023. Gübre sektör politika belgesi 2018-2022. Available at [Access date: 09.05.2023]: https://www.tarimorman.gov.tr/TAGEM/Belgeler/yayin/G%C3%BCbre%20Sekt%C3%B6r%20Politika%20Belgesi%202018-2022.pdf [in Turkish].
• Anonymous 2, 2016. Brifing Dosyası. (Ocak 2016) 2015 yılı. Hatay Valiliği, İl Gıda Tarım ve Hayvancılık Müdürlüğü. Available at [Access date: 09.05.2023]: https://hatay.tarimorman.gov.tr/Belgeler/Sol%20Men%C3%BC/HATAY%20%C4%B0L%20GIDA%20TARIM%20VE%20HAYVANCILIK%20M%C3%9CD%C3%9CRL%C3%9C%C4%9E%C3%9C%202015%20YILI%20BR%C4%B0F%C4%B0NG.pdf [in Turkish].
• Aytop, H., 2022. Evaluation of environmental and ecological risks caused by metals in agricultural areas: an example in the Amik Plain of South Turkey. International Journal of Environmental Health Research 33(12): 1418ꟷ1429.
• Aytop, H., Ateş, Ö., Dengiz, O., Yılmaz, C.H., Demir, Ö.F., 2023. Environmental, ecological and health risks of boron in agricultural soils of Amik Plain under Mediterranean conditions. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment 37: 2069-2081.
• Baba, H., Atay, M., 2019. Myxomycetes of Kumlu and Reyhanlı districts of Hatay/Turkey province. Biological Diversity and Conservation 12(2): 41-50. [in Turkish]
• Haileselassie, B., Stomph, T.J., Hoffland, E., 2011. Teff (Eragrostis tef) production constraints on Vertisols in Ethiopia: farmers’ perceptions and evaluation of low soil zinc as yield-limiting factor. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 57(4): 587–596.
• Bouyoucos, G.J., 1951. A recalibration of the hydrometermethod for making mechanical analysis of the soils. Agronomy Journal 43(9): 434-438.
• IPI, 2014. Potassium a nutrient essential for life. International Potash Institute. Available at [Access date: 09.05.2023]: https://www.ipipotash.org/udocs/388-ipi-booklet-potassium-a-nutrient-for-life.pdf
• Demir, Ö.F., Dikici, H., 2025. Determination of plant nutrition status of corn in serpentine soils with different diagnosing methods. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 1–17p.
• Donaldson, R.A., Meyer, J.H., Wood, R.A., 1990. Response to potassium by sugarcane grown on base saturated clay soils in the eastern Transvaal lowveld. Proceedings of the Annual Congress - South African Sugar Technologists' Association, South African Sugar Association Experiment Station, Mount Edgecombe, South Africa. 64: 17–21.
• Eyüpoğlu, F., 1999. Türkiye topraklarının verimlilik durumu. Genel Yayın No: 220, Teknik Yayın No: T-67, Toprak ve Gübre Araştırma Enstitüsü İşletme Müdürlüğü Yayınları. Ankara, Türkiye [in Turkish].
• FAO, 1980. Soil and plant testing as a basis of fertilizer recommendations Soils Bulletin, No. 38/2, Rome, 100p.
• Garcia, M., Daverede, C., Gallego, P., Toumi, M., 1999. Effect of various potassium-calcium ratios on cation nutrition of grape grown hydroponically. Journal of Plant Nutrition 22: 417–425.
• Gosnell, J.M., Long, A.C., 1971. Some factors affecting foliar analysis in sugarcane. Proceedings of the Annual Congress - South African Sugar Technologists' Association, South African Sugar Association Experiment Station, Mount Edgecombe, South Africa. 45: 217–232.
• Hallmark, W.B., Beverly, R.B., 1991. An update in the use of the diagnosis and recommendation integrated system - Review. Journal of Fertilizer Issues 8(3): 74-88.
• Hannan, J.M., 2011. Potassium-magnesium antagonism in high magnesium vineyard soils. McS Thesis, Iowa State University, Iowa, USA. Available at [Access date: 09.05.2023]: https://dr.lib.iastate.edu/bitstreams/72a04b7d-4d54-45c7-84db-545bc70ec679/download
• Havlin, J.L., Beaton, J.D., Tisdale, S.L., Nelson, W.L., 1999. Soil fertility and fertilizers. 6th Ed. Pearson Prentice Hall., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA.
• Hoskins, B.R., 1997. Soil testing handbook for professionals in agriculture, horticulture, nutrient and residuals management. 3rd edition. Maine Forestry and Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Maine, Maine, USA.
• Jones, J.B.Jr, Wolf, B., Mills, H.A., 1991. Plant analysis handbook: A practical sampling, preparation, analysis, and interpretation guide. Micro-Macro Publishing Inc., Georgia, USA.
• Johansson, O.A.H., Hahlin, J.M., 1977. Potassium/magnesium balance in soil for maximum yield. Proceedings of the International Seminar on Soil Environment and Fertility Management in Intensive Agriculture; Tokyo, Japan. pp. 487-495.
• Kacar, B., Katkat, V., 2010. Bitki Besleme. 5. Baskı. Nobel Yayın Dağıtım Tic. Ltd. Şti., Ankara, Turkey. [in Turkish].
• Kılıç, S., 2011. Agroecological land use potential of Amik Plain, Turkey. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 35(4): 433-442.
• Kingston, G., Anink, M.C., Clift, B.M., Beattie, R.N., 2009. Potassium management for sugarcane on base saturated soils in Northern New South Wales. Proceedings of the Australian Society of Sugar Cane Technology 31:186-194.
• Klute A, 1986. Methods of soil analysis. Part 1: Physical and mineralogical methods, 2nd edtion. American Society of Agronomy, Inc. Soil Science Society of America, Inc. Madison, Wisconsin, USA. 1189p.
• Korkmaz, H., 2009. The relationship between the arid period and the agriculture of wheat, cotton and crop in the Amik Plain. Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi 6(11): 56–88. [in Turkish].
• Kundler, P., Steinbrenner, K., Smukalski, M., Kunze, A., Quast, J., Roth, D., 1989. Erhöhung der Bodenfruchtbarkeit. VEB Deutscher Landwirtschaftsverlag, Berlin, Germany.
• Laekemariam, F., Kibret, K., Shiferaw, H., 2018. Potassium (K)-to-magnesium (Mg) ratio, its spatial variability and implications to potential Mg-induced K deficiency in Nitisols of Southern Ethiopia. Agriculture and Food Security 7: 13.
• Loide, V., 2001. On the contents available magnesium and the ratio of potassium and magnesium in the field soils of Estonia. Agraarteadus 12(1): 51-55 [in Estonian].
• Loué, A., 1968. Diagnostic Petiolaire de Prospection. Etudes Sur la Nutrition et la Fertilisation Potassiques de la Vigbe. Societe Commerciale des Potasses d’Alsace Services Agroomiques. pp.31- 41. [in French].
• Marschner, H., 1995. Mineral nutrition of higher plants. 2nd edition. Academic Press. San Diego, California, USA.
• Mengel, K., Kirkby, E.A., 1978. Principles of Plant Nutrition. International Potash Institute. Berne, Switzerland.
• Meyer, J.H., 2013. Sugarcane nutrition and fertilization. In: Good Management Practices for the Cane Sugar Industry. Meyer, J.H., Rein, P., Turner, P., Mathias, K. (Eds.). Verlag, Berlin. pp.169–218.
• Miller, R.O., 1998. Microwave digestion of plant tissue in an closed vessel. In: Handbook of reference methods for plant analysis. Kalra, Y.P. (Ed.). CRC Press, New York, USA. p. 320.
• Pierre, W.H., Bower, C.A., 1943. Potassium absorption by plants as affected by cationic relationships. Soil Science 55(1): 23-36.
• Pizer, N.H., 1967. Some advisory aspects, soil potassium and magnesium. Tech. Bull. No: 14. 184p.
• Ranade-Malvi, U., 2011. Interaction of micronutrients with major nutrients with special reference to potassium. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Science 24(1): 106-109.
• Rehm, G.,Randall, G., Lamb, J., Eliason, R, 1996. Fertilizing corn in Minnesota. University of Minnesota, Minnesota Extension Service, FO-3790-C. Available at [Access date: 09.05.2023]: https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.agricharts.com/sites/968/Crop%20Prod/Fertilizing%20Corn%20in%20MN_DC3790.pdf
• Reuther, W., Smith, P.F., 1954. Leaf analysis of citrus. In: Fruit nutrition. Childers, N.F. (Ed.). Rutgers University, New Brunswick. pp. 257-294.
• Richards, L.A., 1954. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkaline soils. Agriculture Handbook, Vol. 60, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Washington DC, 160 p.
• Samuels, G., Rodriguez, J.P., Landrau, P., 1959. The response of cotton to fertilizers in Puerto Rico. The Journal of Agriculture of the University of Puerto Rico 43: 89ꟷ102.
• Sönmez, B., 2018. Türkiye topraklarının bazı verimlilik ve organik karbon (TOK) içeriğinin coğrafi veritabanının oluşturulması. Proje Sonuç Raporu, Proje No: TAGEM/TSKAD/11/A13/P03. Soil, Fertilizer and Water Resources Central Research Institute, Ankara, Türkiye. [in Turkish].
• Sumner, M.E., Miller, W.P., 1996. Cation exchange capacity and exchange coefficients. In: Methods of Soil Analysis: Part 3 Chemical Methods, 5.3. Sparks, D.L. Page, A.L., Helmke, P.A., Loeppert, R.H.,
• Soltanpour, P.N., Tabatabai, M.A., Johnston, C.T., Sumner, M.E. (Eds.). Soil Science Society of America, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, USA. pp. 1185-1201.
• Tisdale, S.L., Nelson, W.L., Beaton, J.D., 1985. Soil fertility and Fertilizers. 4thedition. Collier Macmillan Publishers. London, UK. 754 p.
• Torun, B., Çakmak, İ., Eker, S., Yazıcı, A., Özkutlu, F., Erdem, H., Tolay, İ., Alkan-Torun, A., Öztürk, L., Karanlık-Duman, S., Toz, S., Tek, A., 2005. Çukurova Bölgesi’ndeki turunçgil bahçelerinin potasyum ve diğer mineral elementler bakımından beslenme durumu. Tarımda potasyumun yeri ve önemi. 3-4 Ekim 2005, Eskişehir. [in Turkish].
• Turan, M., Horuz, A., 2012. Bitki beslemenin temel ilkeleri. In: Bitki besleme “Sağlıklı Bitki, Sağlıklı Üretim”. Karaman, M.R. (Ed.). Gübretaş rehber kitaplar dizisi: 2, Yenimahalle, Ankara, Türkiye. [in Turkish].
• Ülgen, N., Yurtsever, N., 1995. Türkiye Gübre ve Gübreleme Rehberi, 4. Baskı. T.C. Başbakanlık Köy Hizmetleri Genel Müdürlüğü Toprak ve Gübre Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü Yayınları, Ankara, Türkiye [in Turkish].
• Yalçın, M., Çimrin, K.M., 2021. Nutrient status of soils in KırıkhanꟷReyhanlı Region of Hatay Province and their relationships with some soil properties. ISPEC Journal of Agricultural Sciences 5(4): 773-785 [in Turkish].
• Yalçın, M., Çimrin, K.M., Tutuş, Y., 2018. Nutrients status of grass and pasture soils in Kırıkhan-Reyhanlı Region of Hatay Province and relationships with some soil properties. Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam University Journal of Agriculture and Nature 21(3): 385ꟷ396 [in Turkish].
• Yayla, S.M., 2008. Değişebilir ve yavaş yarayışlı potasyum içeriğinin Kazova topraklarındaki uzaysal dağılımı. McS thesis. Gaziosmanpaşa Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Toprak Ana Bilim Dalı Başkanlığı, Tokat, Türkiye [in Turkish].