ICT-Based Vehicle-to-Grid Operation Based on the Fast Discharge Power for Economic Value

Abstract

Renewable energy sources require effective energy management systems to be efficient in smart grids. Although electric vehicles are all potential consumers, using electric vehicle batteries is an effective utilisation strategy for smart grids. Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) is a crucial future technology for the smart grid. V2G technology proposes employing electric vehicles to contribute the stored energy to the other intelligent grid users. Expansion of the V2G technology is possible by funding, installing, and optimal managing the charging stations. In this work, an economic value of V2G operation is proposed, and an advanced scheme of a V2G operations communication protocol that enables flexible control of the charging and discharging operations of the EV in an optimisation way has been developed, based on an energy arbitrage service, using two different discharge rates study. An economic study based on energy arbitrage using problem optimisation has been depicted. A use case based on the Nissan Leaf 40 kWh was simulated. The results show the economic benefit of using high discharge rate power (i.e., 3C) to the Li-ion battery over the regular discharge rate (1C).

Keywords

• Lithium-Ion Battery
• High discharge rate operation
• Energy arbitrage
• economic value.

References

1. [1]. Dik, A.; Omer, S.; Boukhanouf, R. Electric Vehicles: V2G for Rapid, Safe, and Green EV Penetration. Energies 2022, 15, 803.
2. [2]. Qi, J.; Li, L. Economic Operation Strategy of an E.V. Parking Lot with Vehicle-to-Grid and Renewable Energy Integration. Energies 2023, 16, 1793.
3. [3]. Salvatti, G.A.; Carati, E.G.; Cardoso, R.; da Costa, J.P.; Stein, C.M.d.O. Electric Vehicles Energy Management with V2G/G2V Multifactor Optimization of Smart Grids. Energies 2020, 13, 1191.
4. [4]. He, T.; Lu, D.D.-C.; Wu, M.; Yang, Q.; Li, T.; Liu, Q. Four-Quadrant Operations of Bidirectional Chargers for Electric Vehicles in Smart Car Parks: G2V, V2G, and V4G. Energies 2021, 14, 181.
5. [5]. Iqbal, S.; Xin, A.; Jan, M.U.; Salman, S.; Zaki, A.u.M.; Rehman, H.U.; Shinwari, M.F.; Abdelbaky, M.A. V2G Strategy for Primary Frequency Control of an Industrial Microgrid Considering the Charging Station Operator. Electronics 2020, 9, 549.
6. [6]. Taghizad-Tavana, K.; Alizadeh, A.; Ghanbari-Ghalehjoughi, M.; Nojavan, S. A Comprehensive Review of Electric Vehicles in Energy Systems: Integration with Renewable Energy Sources, Charging Levels, Different Types, and Standards. Energies 2023, 16, 630.
7. [7]. Kempton, W.; Tomic, J. Vehicle-to-grid power fundamentals: Calculating capacity and net revenue. J. Power Sources 2005, 144, 268–279.
8. [8]. Kempton, W.; Kubo, T. Electric-drive vehicles for peak power in Japan. Energy Policy 2000, 28, 9–18.

9. [9]. Han, S.; Han, S. Economic Feasibility of V2G Frequency Regulation in Consideration of Battery Wear. Energies 2013, 6, 748-765.
10. [10]. Petersona, S.; Whitacrea, J.; Apt, J. The economics of using plug-in hybrid electric vehicle battery packs for gridstorage. J. Power Sources 2010, 195, 2377–2384.
11. [11]. H. Khani and M. R. D. Zadeh, “Real-Time Optimal Dispatch and Economic Viability of Cryogenic Energy Storage Exploiting Arbitrage Opportunities in an Electricity Market,” IEEE Tran. on Smart Grid, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 391–401, JAN 2015
12. [12]. D. Metz and J. T. Saraiva, “Use of battery storage systems for price arbitrage operations in the 15-and 60-min German intraday markets,” Electric Power Systems Research, vol. 160, pp. 27–36, JUL 2018.
13. [13]. D. Krishnamurthy, C. Uckun, Z. Zhou, P. R. Thimmapuram, and A. Botterud, “Energy Storage Arbitrage Under Day-Ahead and Real-Time Price Uncertainty,” IEEE Tran. On Power Systems, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 84–93, JAN 2018.
14. [14]. H. Akhavan-Hejazi and H. Mohsenian-Rad, “Optimal operation of independent storage systems in energy and reserve markets with high wind penetration,” IEEE Tran. on Smart Grid, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 1088– 1097, March 2014.
15. [15]. A.A. Thatte, L. Xie, D. E. Viassolo, and S. Singh, “Risk Measure Based Robust Bidding Strategy for Arbitrage Using a Wind Farm and Energy Storage,” IEEE Tran. on Smart Grid, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 2191–2199, DEC 2013.
16. [16]. A. Attarha, N. Amjady, and S. Dehghan, “Affinely Adjustable Robust Bidding Strategy for a Solar Plant Paired With a Battery Storage,” IEEE Tran. on Smart Grid, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 2629–2640, MAY 2019.
17. [17]. Derek Wong, Biju Shrestha, David A. Wetz, John M. Heinzel, “Impact of high rate discharge on the aging of lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide batteries”, Journal of Power Sources, Volume 280, 2015, Pages 363-372.
18. [18]. Solanke, T.U.; Ramachandaramurthy, V.K.; Yong, J.Y.; Pasupuleti, J.; Kasinathan, P.; Rajagopalan, A. A review of strategic charging-discharging control of grid-connected electric vehicles. J. Energy Storage 2020, 28, 101193.
19. [19]. Mazhar, T.; Asif, R.N.; Malik, M.A.; Nadeem, M.A.; Haq, I.; Iqbal, M.; Kamran, M.; Ashraf, S. Electric Vehicle Charging System in the Smart Grid Using Different Machine Learning Methods. Sustainability 2023, 15, 2603.
20. [20]. Ortega-Fernandez, I.; Liberati, F. A Review of Denial of Service Attack and Mitigation in the Smart Grid Using Reinforcement Learning. Energies 2023, 16, 635.
21. [21]. Malla, T.B.; Bhattarai, A.; Parajuli, A.; Shrestha, A.; Chhetri, B.B.; Chapagain, K. Status, Challenges and Future Directions of Blockchain Technology in Power System: A State of Art Review. Energies 2022, 15, 8571.
22. [22]. Seven, S.; Yoldas, Y.; Soran, A.; Yalcin Alkan, G.; Jung, J.; Ustun, T.S.; Onen, A. Energy Trading on a Peer-to-Peer Basis between Virtual Power Plants Using Decentralised Finance Instruments. Sustainability 2022, 14, 13286.
23. [23]. H. Farzin, M. Fotuhi-Firuzabad and M. Moeini-Aghtaie, “A Practical Scheme to Involve Degradation Cost of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Vehicle-to-Grid Applications,” in IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 1730-1738, Oct. 2016.
24. [24]. Mehmood, U.; Agyekum, E.B.; Kotb, H.; Milyani, A.H.; Azhari, A.A.; Tariq, S.; Haq, Z.u.; Ullah, A.; Raza, K.; Velkin, V.I. Exploring the Role of Communication Technologies, Governance, and Renewable Energy for Ecological Footprints in G11 Countries: Implications for Sustainable Development. Sustainability 2022, 14, 12555.
25. [25]. Žarković, M.; Lakić, S.; Ćetković, J.; Pejović, B.; Redzepagic, S.; Vodenska, I.; Vujadinović, R. Effects of Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy Consumption, GHG, ICT on Sustainable Economic Growth: Evidence from Old and New EU Countries. Sustainability 2022, 14, 9662
26. [26]. Soares, F.; Madureira, A.; Pagès, A.; Barbosa, A.; Coelho, A.; Cassola, F.; Ribeiro, F.; Viana, J.; Andrade, J.; Dorokhova, M.; Morais, N.; Wyrsch, N.; Sørensen, T. FEEdBACk: An ICT-Based Platform to Increase Energy Efficiency through Buildings’ Consumer Engagement. Energies 2021, 14, 1524.
27. [27]. Strielkowski, W.; Firsova, I.; Lukashenko, I.; Raudeliūnienė, J.; Tvaronavičienė, M. Effective Management of Energy Consumption during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of ICT Solutions. Energies 2021, 14, 893.
28. [28]. L. Calearo, A. Thingvad and M. Marinelli, “Modeling of Battery Electric Vehicles for Degradation Studies,” 2019 54th International Universities Power Engineering Conference (UPEC), Bucharest, Romania, 2019, pp. 1-6.
29. [29]. Elexon: ‘System sell and buy prices’. Available at https:// www.bmreports.com/bmrs/?q=balancing/systemsellbuyprices, accessed 20 July 2018