An Analyze on Far-Right Terrorism, Conspiracy Theories and the New Media

Year 2022, Volume: 7 Issue: 2, 527 - 546, 30.06.2022

Umut Yukaruç

https://doi.org/10.30784/epfad.1082092

Cited By: 1

Abstract

The number of far-right terrorist attacks advocating for white supremacy has increased in the last decade, such as the 2011 Oslo Attack, the 2019 Christchurch Attack in New Zealand, the 2019 El Paso Attack or the 2019 Poway Synagogue Attack in the USA. Although these attacks took place in different geographies and at different times, there are some similarities between them. One of these similarities is that these terrorists, who have almost the same ideologies, frequently resort to conspiracy theories while shaping their security imaginations. When we evaluate conspiracy theories examined by different disciplines in social sciences in the context of terrorism, studies reveal that conspiracy theories may have a role that increases radicalization or resorting to violence. The first aim of this study is to examine the manifestos of the far-right terrorist attacks advocating white supremacy, to reveal whether they are affected by conspiracy theories and whether there is any similarity between their manifestos. The second aim of this study is to focus on how these terrorists, who are in distant geographies, are affected by each other and to focus on the role of new media in this issue. To this end, this study will first explain the impact of conspiracy theories on terrorism studies. Second, manifestos of terrorists will be examined and how conspiracy theories affect their security imaginations will be discussed. Finally, how attackers can become members of a virtual community in the context of new media will be interpreted by focusing on the Stormfront website.

Keywords

Far-right Terrorism, Security Studies, New Media and Conspiracy Theories

Aşırı Sağ Terör, Komplo Teorileri ve Yeni Medya Üzerine İnceleme

Abstract

2011 Oslo Saldırısı, 2019 Yeni Zelanda Christchurch Saldırısı, 2019 Amerika Birleşik Devletleri (ABD) El Paso Saldırısı veya 2019 ABD Poway Sinagog Saldırısı gibi beyaz üstünlüğünü savunan terör saldırılarının sayısı son on yılda artış göstermiştir. Bu saldırılar farklı coğrafyalarda ve farklı zamanlarda gerçekleşmiş olmalarına rağmen aralarında bazı benzerlikler vardır. Bu benzerliklerden biri hemen hemen aynı ideolojilere sahip olan bu teröristlerin güvenlik tahayyüllerini şekillendirirken komplo teorilerine sıklıkla başvurmalarıdır. Sosyal bilimlerde farklı disiplinlerin incelediği komplo teorilerini terör bağlamında değerlendirdiğimizde yapılan çalışmalar, komplo teorilerinin radikalleşmeyi ya da şiddete başvurmayı artıran bir rolü olabileceğini ortaya koymaktadır. Bu çalışmanın amaçlarından birincisi de beyaz üstünlüğünü savunan aşırı-sağ terör saldırılarını yapan kişilerin manifestolarını inceleyerek komplo teorilerinden etkilenip etkilenmediklerini ortaya koymak ve manifestoları arasında benzerlik olup olmadığını ortaya çıkarmaktır. Bu çalışmanın bir diğer amacı ise uzak coğrafyalarda olan bu teröristlerin birbirlerinden nasıl etkilendiği üzerinde durmak ve yeni medyanın bu konudaki rolüne odaklanmaktadır. Bu amaçla, bu çalışmada ilk olarak komplo teorilerinin terörizm çalışmaları üzerindeki etkisi açıklanmıştır. İkinci olarak, teröristlerin manifestoları incelenecek ve komplo teorilerinin onların güvenlik tahayyüllerini nasıl etkilediği tartışılmıştır. Son olarak ise yeni medya bağlamında saldırganların nasıl sanal bir cemaatin üyesi olabilecekleri Stormfront web sitesine odaklanarak yorumlanmıştır.  

Keywords

Aşırı-sağ Terör, Güvenlik Çalışmaları, Yeni Medya ve Komplo Teorileri

References

• Aistrope, T. and Bleiker, R. (2018). Conspiracy and foreign policy. Security Dialogue, 49(3), 165-182. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010617748305
• Albertazzi, D. and McDonnell, D. (2015). Populists in power. New York: Routledge.
• Atran, S. (2003). Genesis of suicide terrorism. Science, 299(5612), 1534-1539. doi:10.1126/science.1078854
• Barkun, M. (2003). A culture of conspiracy: Apocalyptic visions in contemporary America. CA: University of California Press.
• Bartlett, J. and Miller, C. (2010). The power of unreason: Conspiracy theories, extremism and counter-terrorism. London: Demos.
• BBC News Türkçe. (2012). Breivik Ütöya katliamını anlattı. Erişim adresi: https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler/2012/04/120420_breiviklast
• Berger, J.M. (2018). Extremism. London: MIT Press.
• Bergmann, E. (2021). The Eurabia conspiracy theory. In A. Önnerfors and A. Krouwel (Eds.), Europe: Continent of conspiracies: Conspiracy theories in and about Europe (pp. 36-53). London: Routledge.
• Blanuša, N. and Hristov, T. (2020). Psychoanalysis, critical theory and conspiracy theory. In M. Butter and P. Knight (Eds.), Routledge handbook of conspiracy theories (pp. 67-80). New York: Routledge.
• Bowman-Grieve, L. (2009). Exploring “Stormfront”: A virtual community of the radical right. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 32(11), 989-1007. https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100903259951
• Breivik, A.B. (2011). 2083: A European declaration of independence. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/r/2010-2019/WashingtonPost/2011/07/24/National-Politics/Graphics/2083+-+A+European+Declaration+of+Independence.pdf
• Brown, A. (2019). The myth of Eurabia: How a far-right conspiracy theory went mainstream. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/16/the-myth-of-eurabia-how-a-far-right-conspiracy-theory-went-mainstream
• Camus, R. (2012). The great replacement. Retrieved from https://media.128ducks.com/file_store/d92a5993707de0bea0b3102d4413a84ae61ab68851f0a71939a0878a93ed789e.pdf
• Charlton, L. (2019). What is the great replacement? Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/06/us/politics/grand-replacement-explainer.html
• Conway, M., Scrivens, R. and Macnair, L. (2019). Right-wing extremists' persistent online presence: History and contemporary trends (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism Research Report). Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/resrep19623.pdf
• Damhuis, K. (2019). “The biggest problem in the Netherlands”: Understanding the Party for Freedom’s Politicization of Islam. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-biggest-problem-in-the-netherlands-understanding-the-party-for-freedoms-politicization-of-islam/
• Doty, R.L. (1993). Foreign policy as social construction: A post-positivist analysis of US counterinsurgency policy in the Philippines. International Studies Quarterly, 37(3), 297-320. https://doi.org/10.2307/2600810
• Earnest, J.T. (2019). An open letter. Retrieved from https://bcsh.bard.edu/files/2019/06/Earnest-Manifesto-042719.pdf
• Eberl, J.M., Huber, R.A. and Greussing, E. (2021). From populism to the “plandemic”: Why populists believe in COVID-19 conspiracies. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 31, 272-284. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2021.1924730
• Epstein, C. (2008). The power of words in international relations: Birth of an anti-whaling discourse. London: The MIT Press.
• Fearnow, B. (2021). Fox News' Tucker Carlson, white supremacist manifestos 'eerily' similar, 'daily show' mash-up suggests. Retrieved from https://www.newsweek.com/fox-news-tucker-carlson-white-supremacist-manifestos-eerily-similar-daily-show-mash-suggests-1582624
• Fenster, M. (2008). Conspiracy theories: Secrecy and power in American culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
• Green, R. and Douglas, K.M. (2018). Anxious attachment and belief in conspiracy theories. Personality and Individual Differences, 125, 30–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.12.023
• Holzscheiter, A. (2014). Between communicative interaction and structures of signification: Discourse theory and analysis in international relations. International Studies Perspectives, 15(2), 142-162. https://doi.org/10.1111/insp.12005
• Independent Türkçe. (2019). Avustralyalı sağcı senatörden Yeni Zelanda yorumu: Bu saldırı Müslümanları suçsuz yapmaz. Erişim adresi: https://www.indyturk.com/node/19286/d%C3%BCnya/avustralyal%C4%B1-sa%C4%9Fc%C4%B1-senat%C3%B6rden-yeni-zelanda-yorumu-bu-sald%C4%B1r%C4%B1-m%C3%BCsl%C3%BCmanlar%C4%B1-su%C3%A7suz
• Kamali, S. (2021). Homegrown gate: Why white nationalists and militant Islamists are waging war against the United States. California: University of California Press.
• Kim, T.K. (2005). Hate website Stormfront sees rapid growth of Neo-Nazi community. Retrieved from https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2005/hate-website-stormfront-sees-rapid-growth-neo-nazi-community
• Lee, B. (2020). Radicalisation and conspiracy theories. In M. Butter and P. Knight (Eds.), Routledge handbook of conspiracy theories (pp. 344-356). New York: Routledge.
• Mudde, C. (2004). The populist zeitgeist. Government and Opposition, 39(4), 541-563. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x
• Nefes, T.S. and Romero-Reche, A. (2020). Sociology, social theory and conspiracy theory. In M. Butter and P. Knight (Eds.), Routledge handbook of conspiracy theories (pp. 94-107). New York: Routledge.
• Newcomb, A. (2014). Stormfront website posters have murdered almost 100 people, watchdog group says. Retrieved from https://abcnews.go.com/
• O Tuathail, G. and Agnew, J. (1992). Geopolitics and discourse: Practical geopolitical reasoning in American foreign policy. Political Geography, 11(2), 190-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/0962-6298(92)90048-X
• Oliver, J.E. and Wood, T.J. (2014). Conspiracy theories and the paranoid style(s) of mass opinion. American Journal of Political Science, 58(4), 952-966. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12084
• Olmsted, K.S. (2009). Real enemies: Conspiracy theories and American democracy, World War I to 9/11. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Panizza, F. (2005). Populism and the mirror of democracy. New York: Verso.
• Swami, V., Coles, R., Stieger, S., Pietschnig, J., Furnham, A., Rehim, S. and Voracek, M. (2011). Conspiracist ideation in Britain and Austria: Evidence of a monological belief system and associations between individual psychological differences and real-world and fictitious conspiracy theories. British Journal of Psychology, 102(3), 443-463. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.2010.02004.x
• Rousis, G.J., Richard, F.D. and Wang, D.Y.D. (2020). The truth is out there: The prevalence of conspiracy theory use by radical violent extremist organizations. Terrorism and Political Violence, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2020.1835654
• Russo, C.H. (2019). El Paso shooting suspect may have shared anti-immigrant manifesto before attack. Retrieved from https://www.huffpost.com/entry/patrick-crusius-manifesto-el-paso-shooting_n_5d460ba5e4b0aca3411ec308
• Tarrant, B. (2019). The great replacement: Towards a new society. Retrieved from https://commons.wikimannia.org/images/Tarrant_Brenton_-_The_Great_Replacement.pdf
• Van Kessel, S. (2015). Populist parties in Europe: Agents of discontent? Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Van Prooijen, J.W. and Acker, M. (2015). The influence of control on belief in conspiracy theories: Conceptual and applied extensions. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 29(5), 753-761. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3161
• Williams, H.J., Evans, A.T., Mueller, E.E., Downing, B. and Ryan, J. (2021). The online extremist ecosystem: Its evolution and framework for separating extreme from mainstream. CA: RAND Corp.
• Williams, J. (2018). Trump’s tweet echoing white nationalist propaganda about South African farmers, explained. Retrieved from https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2018/8/23/17772056/south-africa-trump-tweet-afriforum-white-farmers-violence
• Wilson, J. (2018). Fraser Anning claims that South African farmers are at risk of genocide. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/26/fraser-anning-claims-that-south-african-farmers-are-at-risk-of-genocide
• Yablokov, I. (2014). Pussy riot as agent provocateur: Conspiracy theories and the media construction of nation in Putin's Russia. Nationalities Papers, 42(4), 622-636. https://doi.org/10.1080/00905992.2014.923390
• Yeʼor, B. (2005). Eurabia: The Euro-Arab axis. Taeneck: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.