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Yaşam Döngüsü Boyunca Dijital Eşitsizliğin Ölçülmesi: Türkiye'de Yaş, Cinsiyet ve Eğitim Etkileri

Year 2025, Volume: 10 Issue: 3, 1086 - 1103, 30.09.2025
https://doi.org/10.30784/epfad.1687594

Abstract

Hızlı teknolojik gelişmeler ekonomik aktörleri dijital dünyaya uyum sağlamaya zorlamaktadır. Öte yandan, dijital erişimden yoksun bireyler ile dijital teknolojileri etkin biçimde deneyimleyenler arasındaki uçurumun ve dijital eşitsizliklerin ekonomik önemini ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bu çalışma, çok boyutlu bir dijital refah göstergesi oluşturarak Türkiye'de yaşam döngüsü boyunca dijital eşitsizliğin dinamiklerini araştırmaktadır. Dijital refah göstergesi; dijital araçlara erişimi, kullanım sıklığını, amaçlarını ve dijital deneyimi içerecek geniş bir çerçevede ele alınırken, TÜİK’in Hanehalkı Bilişim Teknolojileri Kullanım Araştırmaları verileri kullanılmıştır. Çalışmada dijital eşitsizlik Gini katsayısıyla ölçülmekte ve yaş, cinsiyet ve eğitim seviyesine göre dijital eşitsizliğin değişimi incelenmektedir. Bulgular, Türkiye'de dijital eşitsizliğin son on yılda önemli ölçüde azaldığını, 2015'te 0,539 olan Gini katsayısının 2023'te 0,285'e düştüğünü göstermektedir. Yaşam döngüsü boyunca dijital eşitsizlik yetişkin ve yaşlılarda istikrarlı biçimde artmaktadır. Bununla birlikte dijital eşitsizlik yaşlı bireyler, kadınlar ve düşük eğitim seviyesine sahip bireyler arasında önemli ölçüde daha yüksektir. Kadınlar arasında dijital eşitsizlikler erkeklerden daha yüksek olmakla birlikte, aradaki fark son on yılda büyük ölçüde artmıştır. Dijital refah, yaşam döngüsü boyunca ters U şeklindeyken orta yaşlarda zirveye ulaşmaktadır. Eğitim; yaş ve cinsiyete dayalı dijital eşitsizlikleri önemli ölçüde azaltmaktadır. Politika önerileri arasında, yaşlılara yönelik dijital okuryazarlık programları, toplumsal cinsiyete duyarlı destek stratejileri ve dijital becerilerin yaşam boyu eğitim çerçevelerine entegre edilmesi ifade edilebilir.

References

  • Antonio, A. and Tuffley, D. (2014). The gender digital divide in developing countries. Future Internet, 6(4), 673-687. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi6040673
  • Atkinson, A.B. and Bourguignon, F. (2014). Handbook of income distribution. Oxford: Elsevier.
  • Avanesian, G., Zaw, H.T., Kelly, P. and Mizunoya, S. (2024). Dissecting the digital divide: A household fixed effects approach to estimating gender gaps in digital skills of youth in low-and middle-income economies. Heliyon, 10(12). Retrieved from https://www.cell.com/
  • Canatan, B., Özbilge, G. and İpek, E. (2023). Hanehalkı dijital teknoloji sahipliği açısından sosyoekonomik bir analiz. Sosyoekonomi, 31(56), 461-477. https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2023.02.21
  • Chakraborty, J. and Bosman, M.M. (2005). Measuring the digital divide in the United States: Race, income, and personal computer ownership. The Professional Geographer, 57(3), 395-410. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0033-0124.2005.00486.x
  • Chamwong, S., Chomtohsuwan, T. and Charoenphandhu, N. (2024). Analysis of inequality in household internet utilization and policy implications. Journal of Demography, 40(1), 4. Retrieved from https://digital.car.chula.ac.th/
  • Cotten, S.R., Davison, E.L., Shank, D.B. and Ward, B.W. (2014). Gradations of disappearing digital divides among racially diverse middle school students. In L. Robinson, S.R. Cotton and J. Schulz (Eds.), Communication and information technologies annual (pp. 25-54). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
  • DiMaggio, P. and Hargittai, E. (2001). From the ‘digital divide’ to ‘digital inequality’: Studying Internet use as penetration increases (Center for Arts and Cultural Policy Studies No. 15). Retrieved from https://policycommons.net/artifacts/2062390/from-the-digital-divide-to-digital-inequality/2815481/
  • Fidan, H. (2017). Gini approach for determining of regional digital divide in Turkey. Business and Economics Research Journal, 8(1), 49-62. Retrieved from https://www.berjournal.com/
  • Fidan, H. and Şen, H. (2015). Sayısal bölünmenin ölçülmesinde Gini yaklaşımı: Türkiye'de kentsel, kırsal ve cinsiyet açısından sayısal bölünme düzeyleri. Journal of International Social Research, 8(39). Erişim adresi: https://www.sosyalarastirmalar.com/
  • Görgün Baran, A. and Erdem, M.T. (2017). Bilgi toplumunda dijital bölünme: Bilişim ve iletişim teknolojileri kullanım yetenekleri üzerinden bir tartışma. Suleyman Demirel University Journal of Faculty of Economics & Administrative Sciences, 22(Kayfor 15 Özel Sayısı), 1505-1518. Erişim adresi: https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/sduiibfd/
  • Hargittai, E. (2003). The digital divide and what to do about it. In D.J. Jones (Ed.), New economy handbook (pp. 821-839). San Diego CA: Academic Press
  • Ho, C.C. and Tseng, S.F. (2006). From digital divide to digital inequality: The global perspective. International Journal of Internet and Enterprise Management, 4(3), 215-227. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJIEM.2006.010915
  • Imran, A. (2023). Why addressing digital inequality should be a priority. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 89(3), e12255. https://doi.org/10.1002/isd2.12255
  • Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada. (2021). Evaluation of the digital literacy exchange program. Retrieved from https://ised-isde.canada.ca/site/audits- evaluations/en/node/223
  • Li, G. (2023). Digital inequality and household income distribution: Evidence from rural China. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 18(6), 3061-3087. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-023-10220-w
  • Lythreatis, S., Singh, S.K. and El-Kassar, A.N. (2022). The digital divide: A review and future research agenda. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 175, 121359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121359
  • Mancino, D. (2023). Digital Literacy in the EU: An Overview. Retrieved from https://data.europa.eu/en/publications/datastories/digital-literacy-eu-overview
  • Martin, C., Hope, S., Zubairi, S. and Scotland, I.M. (2016). The role of digital exclusion in social exclusion. Retrieved from https://d1ssu070pg2v9i.cloudfront.net/pex/carnegie_uk_trust/2016/09/LOW-2697-CUKT-Digital-Participation-Report-REVISE.pdf
  • Martin, S.P. (2003). Is the digital divide really closing? A critique of inequality measurement in a nation online. IT & Society, 1(4), 1-13. Retrieved from https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/
  • Ono, H. and Zavodny, M. (2007). Digital inequality: A five country comparison using microdata. Social Science Research, 36(3), 1135-1155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2006.09.001
  • Robinson, L., Cotten, S.R., Ono, H., Quan-Haase, A., Mesch, G., Chen, W., ... Stern, M.J. (2015). Digital inequalities and why they matter. Information, Communication & Society, 18(5), 569-582. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1012532
  • Srinuan, C. and Bohlin, E. (2011). Understanding the digital divide: A literature survey and ways forward. Paper presented at the 22nd European Regional Conference of the International Telecommunications Society (ITS): "Innovative ICT Applications - Emerging Regulatory, Economic and Policy Issues". Budapest, Hungary. Retrieved from https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/52191/1/672623358.pdf
  • van Dijk, J.A. (2002). A framework for digital divide research. Electronic Journal of Communication, 12(1). Retrieved from http://www.cios.org
  • Vehovar, V., Sicherl, P., Hüsing, T. and Dolnicar, V. (2006). Methodological challenges of digital divide measurements. The Information Society, 22(5), 279-290. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972240600904076
  • World Economic Forum. (2022). Which European countries have the most digital skills? Retrieved from https://www.weforum.org/stories/2022/04/europe-basic-digital-skills/
  • Yue, Q., Zhang, M. and Song, Y. (2024). Impact of digital divide on energy poverty across the globe: The mediating role of income inequality. Energy Policy, 195, 114349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2024.114349

Measuring Digital Inequality Across the Life Cycle: Age, Gender, and Education Effects in Türkiye

Year 2025, Volume: 10 Issue: 3, 1086 - 1103, 30.09.2025
https://doi.org/10.30784/epfad.1687594

Abstract

Rapid technological developments have forced economic actors to adapt to the digital world, revealing the economic significance of digital inequalities. This study investigates digital inequality dynamics throughout the life cycle in Türkiye by creating a multidimensional digital welfare indicator. This indicator encompasses access to digital tools, usage frequency, purposes, and digital experience, using TURKSTAT's Household Information Technology Usage Surveys. Digital inequality is measured via the Gini coefficient across age, gender, and education. Findings show that digital inequality in Türkiye decreased significantly in the last decade, with the Gini coefficient falling from 0.539 in 2015 to 0.285 in 2023. Digital inequality increases steadily across age groups after youth and is significantly higher among elderly individuals, women, and those with low education. While digital inequalities among women exceed those among men, this gap has widened over the last decade. Digital welfare follows an inverted U-shape throughout the life cycle, peaking in middle age. Education significantly reduces age and gender-based digital inequalities. Policy recommendations include digital literacy programs for the elderly, gender-sensitive support strategies, and integration of digital skills into lifelong learning frameworks.

References

  • Antonio, A. and Tuffley, D. (2014). The gender digital divide in developing countries. Future Internet, 6(4), 673-687. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi6040673
  • Atkinson, A.B. and Bourguignon, F. (2014). Handbook of income distribution. Oxford: Elsevier.
  • Avanesian, G., Zaw, H.T., Kelly, P. and Mizunoya, S. (2024). Dissecting the digital divide: A household fixed effects approach to estimating gender gaps in digital skills of youth in low-and middle-income economies. Heliyon, 10(12). Retrieved from https://www.cell.com/
  • Canatan, B., Özbilge, G. and İpek, E. (2023). Hanehalkı dijital teknoloji sahipliği açısından sosyoekonomik bir analiz. Sosyoekonomi, 31(56), 461-477. https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2023.02.21
  • Chakraborty, J. and Bosman, M.M. (2005). Measuring the digital divide in the United States: Race, income, and personal computer ownership. The Professional Geographer, 57(3), 395-410. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0033-0124.2005.00486.x
  • Chamwong, S., Chomtohsuwan, T. and Charoenphandhu, N. (2024). Analysis of inequality in household internet utilization and policy implications. Journal of Demography, 40(1), 4. Retrieved from https://digital.car.chula.ac.th/
  • Cotten, S.R., Davison, E.L., Shank, D.B. and Ward, B.W. (2014). Gradations of disappearing digital divides among racially diverse middle school students. In L. Robinson, S.R. Cotton and J. Schulz (Eds.), Communication and information technologies annual (pp. 25-54). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
  • DiMaggio, P. and Hargittai, E. (2001). From the ‘digital divide’ to ‘digital inequality’: Studying Internet use as penetration increases (Center for Arts and Cultural Policy Studies No. 15). Retrieved from https://policycommons.net/artifacts/2062390/from-the-digital-divide-to-digital-inequality/2815481/
  • Fidan, H. (2017). Gini approach for determining of regional digital divide in Turkey. Business and Economics Research Journal, 8(1), 49-62. Retrieved from https://www.berjournal.com/
  • Fidan, H. and Şen, H. (2015). Sayısal bölünmenin ölçülmesinde Gini yaklaşımı: Türkiye'de kentsel, kırsal ve cinsiyet açısından sayısal bölünme düzeyleri. Journal of International Social Research, 8(39). Erişim adresi: https://www.sosyalarastirmalar.com/
  • Görgün Baran, A. and Erdem, M.T. (2017). Bilgi toplumunda dijital bölünme: Bilişim ve iletişim teknolojileri kullanım yetenekleri üzerinden bir tartışma. Suleyman Demirel University Journal of Faculty of Economics & Administrative Sciences, 22(Kayfor 15 Özel Sayısı), 1505-1518. Erişim adresi: https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/sduiibfd/
  • Hargittai, E. (2003). The digital divide and what to do about it. In D.J. Jones (Ed.), New economy handbook (pp. 821-839). San Diego CA: Academic Press
  • Ho, C.C. and Tseng, S.F. (2006). From digital divide to digital inequality: The global perspective. International Journal of Internet and Enterprise Management, 4(3), 215-227. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJIEM.2006.010915
  • Imran, A. (2023). Why addressing digital inequality should be a priority. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 89(3), e12255. https://doi.org/10.1002/isd2.12255
  • Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada. (2021). Evaluation of the digital literacy exchange program. Retrieved from https://ised-isde.canada.ca/site/audits- evaluations/en/node/223
  • Li, G. (2023). Digital inequality and household income distribution: Evidence from rural China. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 18(6), 3061-3087. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-023-10220-w
  • Lythreatis, S., Singh, S.K. and El-Kassar, A.N. (2022). The digital divide: A review and future research agenda. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 175, 121359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121359
  • Mancino, D. (2023). Digital Literacy in the EU: An Overview. Retrieved from https://data.europa.eu/en/publications/datastories/digital-literacy-eu-overview
  • Martin, C., Hope, S., Zubairi, S. and Scotland, I.M. (2016). The role of digital exclusion in social exclusion. Retrieved from https://d1ssu070pg2v9i.cloudfront.net/pex/carnegie_uk_trust/2016/09/LOW-2697-CUKT-Digital-Participation-Report-REVISE.pdf
  • Martin, S.P. (2003). Is the digital divide really closing? A critique of inequality measurement in a nation online. IT & Society, 1(4), 1-13. Retrieved from https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/
  • Ono, H. and Zavodny, M. (2007). Digital inequality: A five country comparison using microdata. Social Science Research, 36(3), 1135-1155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2006.09.001
  • Robinson, L., Cotten, S.R., Ono, H., Quan-Haase, A., Mesch, G., Chen, W., ... Stern, M.J. (2015). Digital inequalities and why they matter. Information, Communication & Society, 18(5), 569-582. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1012532
  • Srinuan, C. and Bohlin, E. (2011). Understanding the digital divide: A literature survey and ways forward. Paper presented at the 22nd European Regional Conference of the International Telecommunications Society (ITS): "Innovative ICT Applications - Emerging Regulatory, Economic and Policy Issues". Budapest, Hungary. Retrieved from https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/52191/1/672623358.pdf
  • van Dijk, J.A. (2002). A framework for digital divide research. Electronic Journal of Communication, 12(1). Retrieved from http://www.cios.org
  • Vehovar, V., Sicherl, P., Hüsing, T. and Dolnicar, V. (2006). Methodological challenges of digital divide measurements. The Information Society, 22(5), 279-290. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972240600904076
  • World Economic Forum. (2022). Which European countries have the most digital skills? Retrieved from https://www.weforum.org/stories/2022/04/europe-basic-digital-skills/
  • Yue, Q., Zhang, M. and Song, Y. (2024). Impact of digital divide on energy poverty across the globe: The mediating role of income inequality. Energy Policy, 195, 114349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2024.114349
There are 27 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Developmental Economy - Micro, Welfare Economics
Journal Section Makaleler
Authors

Gamze Kargın Akkoç 0000-0002-8436-0462

Publication Date September 30, 2025
Submission Date April 30, 2025
Acceptance Date July 31, 2025
Published in Issue Year 2025 Volume: 10 Issue: 3

Cite

APA Kargın Akkoç, G. (2025). Measuring Digital Inequality Across the Life Cycle: Age, Gender, and Education Effects in Türkiye. Ekonomi Politika Ve Finans Araştırmaları Dergisi, 10(3), 1086-1103. https://doi.org/10.30784/epfad.1687594