Empirical Analysis of the Average Consumption Trend in D-8 Countries
Year 2024,
Volume: 11 Issue: 1, 38 - 52, 22.03.2024
Burak Uğur
,
Tuğçe Dallı
,
Tuba Aksu
Abstract
Consumption theories are divided into two groups according to whether the average propensity to consume is stable in the long run. Consumption theories in the first group (Relative, Permanent and Lifetime Income Hypothesis) state that the ratio of consumption to income is constant in the long run, therefore it is not possible for economic policies to increase output by stimulating consumption. Consumption theories in the other group (Absolute Income, Insufficient Consumption, Consumption Drag and Involuntary Compulsory Saving Theory) argue that the average consumption trend is not stable in the long run, therefore output can be increased with active economic policies.
The main purpose of this study is to test whether the average consumption trend in D-8 countries is stable with the annual data of the 1982-2020 period. For this purpose, Panel Panic and Fourier LM unit root tests were used because of the cross-section dependence of the series. The findings reveal that the ratio of consumption to income in D-8 countries is not stable in the period examined. According to this result, the average consumption tendency does not return to the average in the D-8 country groups in the long run, and any shock in the economy can have permanent effects on both consumption and savings.
References
- Ağır, H. ve Türkmen, S. (2020). Ekonomik büyümeye etkisi bakımından doğal
kaynaklar: dinamik panel veri analizi, Gaziantep University Journal of
Social Sciences, 19(3), 840-852.
- Ando, A. ve Modigliani, F. (1963). The life-cycle hypothesis of saving: aggregate
implications and tests, American Economic Review, 53(1), 55-84.
- Arı, A. ve Özcan, B. (2015). Tüketim-gelir oranının durağanlığı: Türkiye örneği,
Hacettepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi,
33(3), 23-46.
- Ayla, D. ve Kızıltan, A. (2018). Türkiye’de enflasyon, tüketim ve tasarruf
ilişkisinin ekonometrik analizi, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Üniversitesi
Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 4(7), 13-41.
- Bai, J. (2009). Panel data models with ınteractive fixed effects, Econometrica,
77(4), 1229-1279.
- Bai, J. S. ve Ng, S. (2010). Panel unit root tests with cross-section dependence:
a further investigation, Econometric Theory, 26(4):1088-1114.
- Baltagi, B. H. (2008). Econometric Analysis of Panel Data. England: John Wiley
& Sons Ltd.
- Baykara, S. ve Telatar, E. (2012). The stationarity of consumption- income
ratios with nonlinear and asymmetric unit root tests: evidence from
fourteen transition economies, Hacettepe University Department of
Economics Working Papers, 2012(9), 1-41.
- Breusch, T. S. ve Pagan, A. R. (1980). The lagrange multiplier test and its
applications to model specification in econometrics, The Review of
Economic Studies, 47(1), 239-253.
- Cerrato, M., De Peretti, C. ve Stewart, C. (2008). Is the consumption-income
ratio stationary? evidence from a nonlinear panel unit root test for
OECD And non-OECD countries, Discussion Paper, 27, Department of
Economics, University of Glasgow.
- Cerrato, M., Peretti, C. ve Stewart, C. (2013). Is the consumption-income ratio
stationary? evidence from linear and non-linear panel unit root tests
for OECD and non-OECD coutries, The Manchester School, 81(1), 102-
120.
- Chen, S. W. ve Xie, Z. (2015). Nonlinear mean reversion in the consumption
income ratio: new evidence from the OECD countries, International
Review of Accounting, Banking and Finance, 7(3/4), 30-56.
- Coakley, J., Fuertes, A. M. ve Smith, R. (2002). A principal components
approach to cross-section dependence in panels.
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/versions?doi=10.1.1.196.546
(Erişim tarihi: 10.11.2022).
- Cook, S. (2003). The nonstationarity of the consumption-income ratio:
evidence from more powerful Dickey-Fuller tests, Applied Economics
Letters, 10, 393-395.
- Cook, S. (2005). The Stationarity of Consumption-Income Ratios: Evidence
from Minimum Lm Unit Root Testing, Economics Letters, 89(1), 55-60.
- Deaton, A. S. (1977). Involuntary saving through unanticipated inflation,
American Economic Review, 67, 899-910.
- Drobny, A. ve Hall, S. G. (1989). An investigation of The long-run properties
of aggregate nondurable consumers’ expenditure in the United
Kingdom, Economic Journal, 99, 454-460.
- Duesenberry, J. S. (1949). Income, Saving and the Theory of Consumer
Behavior. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
- Elmi, Z. M. ve Ranjbar, O. (2013). Nonlinear adjustment to the mean reversion
of consumption-income ratio, Economic Modelling, 35, 477-480.
- Enders, W. ve Lee, J. (2012). A unit root test using a fourier series to
approximate smooth breaks, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and
Statistics, 74(4), 574-599.
- Erkan, S. ve Ceylan, S. (2021). Enflasyon belirsizliğinin kredi hacmi üzerindeki
etkisi, Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 20(79), 1370-1384.
- Fallahi, F. (2012). The Stationarity of Consumption-Income Ratios: Evidence
from Bootstrapping Confidence Intervals, Economics Letters, 115, 137-
140.
- Friedman, M. (1957). A Theory of the Consumption Function. Princeton
University Press, Princeton, 296s.
- Gomes, F. A. R. ve Franchini, D. S. (2009) The stationarity of consumptionincome ratios: evidence from South American Countries, Economia Aplicada, 13, 463-479.
- Gözgör, G. (2013). stochastic properties of the consumption-income ratios in
Central and Eastern European countries, Proceedings of Rijeka Faculty
of Economics: Journal of Economics and Business, 31(2), 193-207.
- Hall, S. G. ve Patterson, K. D. (1992). A systems approach to the relationship
between consumption and wealth, Applied Economics, 24, 1165-1171.
- Holmes, M. J. ve Shen, X. (2013). A note on the average propensity to consume,
wealth and threshold adjustment, Economic Modelling, 35, 309-313.
- Horioka, C. Y. (1997). A cointegration analysis of the impact of the age
structure of the population on the household saving rate in Japan,
Review of Economics and Statistics, 79, 511-515.
- Jin, F. (1995). Cointegration of consumption and disposable income: evidence
from twelve OECD Countries, Southern Economic Journal, 62, 77-88.
- Karul, Ç. (2016). Esnek Fourier Fonksiyonlu Yeni Bir Panel Birim Kök Testi
Önerisi ve OECD Örneği. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Pamukkale Üniversitesi
Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Denizli.
- Keynes, J. M. (1936). The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money.
London: MacMillan.
- King, R. G., Plosser, C. I., Stock, J. H. ve Watson, M. W. (1991). Stochastic
trends and economic fluctuations, American Economic Review, 81,
819-840.
- Liao, S. Y., Huang, M. L. ve Lan-Hsun, W. (2011). Mean-Reverting behavior of
consumption-income ratio in OECD countries: Evidence from
SURADF panel unit root tests, Economics Bulletin, AccessEcon, 31(1),
679-686.
- Marques, A. M. ve Pesavento, F. (2019). Is The average propensity to consume
stationary in the long run? testing panel data for unit roots exploiting
the cross-sectional dependence 1952-2014, 29th Ebes ConferenceLisbon Proceedings.
- Molana, H. (1991). The time series consumption function: error correction,
random walk and the steady state, Economic Journal, 101, 382-403.
Nazlıoğlu, S. ve Karul, C. (2017). Panel LM unit root test with gradual structural
shifts, 40th International Panel Data Conference, Thessaloniki-Greece,
1-26.
- Nelson, C. R. ve Plosser, C. R. (1982). Trends and random walks in
macroeconomics time series: some evidence and implications, Journal
of Monetary Economics, 10, 139-162.
- Pesaran, M. H. (2004). General diagnostic tests for cross section dependence
in panels. Cesifo Working Paper No:1229, Erişim adresi:
https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/18868/1/cesifo1_wp1229.pdf.
- Pesaran, M. H., Ullah, A. ve Yamagata, T. (2008). A bias-adjusted lm test of
error cross-section independence, Econometrics Journal, (11), 105-127.
- Romero-Avila, D. (2008). A confirmatory analysis of the unit root hypothesis
for OECD Consumption-Income Ratios, Applied Economics, 40(17),
2271-2278.
- Romero-Avila, D. (2009). Are OECD consumption-ıncome ratios stationary
after all? Economic Modelling, 26, 107-117.
- Sarantis, N. ve Stewart, C. (1999). Is the consumption-income ratio stationary?
evidence from panel unit root tests, Economics Letters, 64, 309-314.
- Saray, M. O. (2019). D-8 ekonomileri, dış ticaret desenleri ve Türkiye için
önemi: İhracat ve ithalat yoğunluğu endeksiyle bir değerlendirme,
Curr Res Soc Sci, 5(2), 171-188.
- Sivri, U. ve Seven, B. (2017). Ortalama tüketim eğilimi durağan mıdır? Türkiye
ekonomisi için bir zaman serisi analizi, Anadolu İktisat ve İşletme
Dergisi, 1(1), 50-65.
- Smithies, A. (1945). Forecasting Postwar Demand: I. Econometrica, 13(1), 1-14.
- Solarin, S. A. (2017). the stationarity of consumption-income ratios: nonlinear
evidence in ASEAN countries, Romanian Journal of Economic
Forecasting, 20(2), 109-123.
- Tarı, R. ve Çalışkan, Ş. (2005). Kocaeli ilinde tüketimin gelir hipotezlerinin
analizi, Atatürk Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 19(2), 1-19.
- Tsionas, E. ve Christopoulos, D. (2002). Non-sationarity in the consumptionıncome ratio: further evidence from panel and assymetric unit root tests, Economics Bulletin, 3(12), 1-5.
- Türkan, Y. ve Alakuştekin, A. (2017). Gelişen sekiz İslam ülkesinin (D-8
Ülkelerinin) dış ticaretinin yeterlilik analizi, Journal of Emerging
Economies And Policy, 2(1), 137-162.
- Türkmen, S. ve Özbek, S. (2021). Is unemployment hysteresis valid in BRICST countries? evidence from panel fourier LM approach, International Social Sciences Studies Journal, 7(78), 542-549.
- Uğur, B. (2021). Doğrudan yabancı yatırım girişlerinin ihracat üzerine etkileri:
G-20 ülkeleri örneği. Doktora tezi, Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam
Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Kahramanmaraş.
- Uğur, B., Özbek, S. ve Türkmen, S. (2020). Ortalama tüketim eğiliminin
durağanlığı: Türkiye örneği, Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi,
7(45), 294-307.
- Uğur, B. ve İspir, T. (2021). N11 ülkelerinde ortalama tüketim eğilimi durağan
mıdır? Uygulamalı Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 3(1-2), 15-28.
- Unat, E. (2018). Gelir ve tüketim ilişkisinin istikrarı: harcama gruplarına ve
zamana göre kantil regresyon modelden kanıtlar. Yüksek lisans tezi,
Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Balıkesir.
- Ungern-Sternberg, T.V. (1986). Inflation and The consumption function,
Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 122, 741-744.
- Ünsal, E. (2017). Makro İktisat. (11. Bs.), Ankara: Murat Yayınları.
- World Bank (Dünya Bankası), (2022). World Development Indicators.
https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-developmentindicators# (Erişim Tarihi: 30.09.2022).
- Yılancı, V., Zeren, F. ve Arı, A. (2013). Tüketim-Gelir oranı Güneydoğu Asya
ülkelerinde durağan mı? panel birim kök testi, Yönetim ve Ekonomi
Araştırmaları Dergisi, (21), 130-139.
D-8 ÜLKELERİNDE ORTALAMA TÜKETİM EĞİLİMİNİN AMPİRİK ANALİZİ
Year 2024,
Volume: 11 Issue: 1, 38 - 52, 22.03.2024
Burak Uğur
,
Tuğçe Dallı
,
Tuba Aksu
Abstract
Tüketim teorileri ortalama tüketim eğiliminin uzun vadede sabit olup olmadığına göre iki gruba ayrılmaktadır. İlk grupta yer alan tüketim teorileri (Nispi, Sürekli ve Ömür Boyu Gelir Hipotezi) tüketimin gelire oranının uzun dönemde, sabit olduğunu dolayısıyla iktisat politikalarının tüketimi uyarmak suretiyle çıktıyı artırmasının mümkün olmadığını ifade etmektedir. Diğer grupta yer alan tüketim teorileri (Mutlak Gelir, Yetersiz Tüketim, Tüketim Sürükleme ve Gayri İhtiyari Zorunlu Tasarruf Teorisi) ortalama tüketim eğiliminin uzun dönemde sabit olmadığını dolayısıyla aktif iktisat politikalarıyla çıktının artırılabileceğini savunmaktadır.
Bu çalışmanın temel amacı D-8 ülkelerinde 1982-2020 döneminin yıllık verileriyle ortalama tüketim eğiliminin durağan olup olmadığını test etmektir. Bu amaçla serilerin yatay kesit bağımlılığı içermesi nedeniyle Panel Panic ve Fourier LM birim kök testlerinden yararlanılmıştır. Ulaşılan bulgular, D-8 ülkelerinde incelenen dönemde tüketimin gelire oranının durağan olmadığını ortaya koymaktadır. Bu sonuca göre ortalama tüketim eğilimi D-8 ülke gruplarında uzun vadede, ortalamaya geri dönmemekte ve ekonomide yaşanan herhangi bir şok hem tüketim hem de tasarruf üzerinde kalıcı etkiler yaratabilmektedir.
References
- Ağır, H. ve Türkmen, S. (2020). Ekonomik büyümeye etkisi bakımından doğal
kaynaklar: dinamik panel veri analizi, Gaziantep University Journal of
Social Sciences, 19(3), 840-852.
- Ando, A. ve Modigliani, F. (1963). The life-cycle hypothesis of saving: aggregate
implications and tests, American Economic Review, 53(1), 55-84.
- Arı, A. ve Özcan, B. (2015). Tüketim-gelir oranının durağanlığı: Türkiye örneği,
Hacettepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi,
33(3), 23-46.
- Ayla, D. ve Kızıltan, A. (2018). Türkiye’de enflasyon, tüketim ve tasarruf
ilişkisinin ekonometrik analizi, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Üniversitesi
Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 4(7), 13-41.
- Bai, J. (2009). Panel data models with ınteractive fixed effects, Econometrica,
77(4), 1229-1279.
- Bai, J. S. ve Ng, S. (2010). Panel unit root tests with cross-section dependence:
a further investigation, Econometric Theory, 26(4):1088-1114.
- Baltagi, B. H. (2008). Econometric Analysis of Panel Data. England: John Wiley
& Sons Ltd.
- Baykara, S. ve Telatar, E. (2012). The stationarity of consumption- income
ratios with nonlinear and asymmetric unit root tests: evidence from
fourteen transition economies, Hacettepe University Department of
Economics Working Papers, 2012(9), 1-41.
- Breusch, T. S. ve Pagan, A. R. (1980). The lagrange multiplier test and its
applications to model specification in econometrics, The Review of
Economic Studies, 47(1), 239-253.
- Cerrato, M., De Peretti, C. ve Stewart, C. (2008). Is the consumption-income
ratio stationary? evidence from a nonlinear panel unit root test for
OECD And non-OECD countries, Discussion Paper, 27, Department of
Economics, University of Glasgow.
- Cerrato, M., Peretti, C. ve Stewart, C. (2013). Is the consumption-income ratio
stationary? evidence from linear and non-linear panel unit root tests
for OECD and non-OECD coutries, The Manchester School, 81(1), 102-
120.
- Chen, S. W. ve Xie, Z. (2015). Nonlinear mean reversion in the consumption
income ratio: new evidence from the OECD countries, International
Review of Accounting, Banking and Finance, 7(3/4), 30-56.
- Coakley, J., Fuertes, A. M. ve Smith, R. (2002). A principal components
approach to cross-section dependence in panels.
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/versions?doi=10.1.1.196.546
(Erişim tarihi: 10.11.2022).
- Cook, S. (2003). The nonstationarity of the consumption-income ratio:
evidence from more powerful Dickey-Fuller tests, Applied Economics
Letters, 10, 393-395.
- Cook, S. (2005). The Stationarity of Consumption-Income Ratios: Evidence
from Minimum Lm Unit Root Testing, Economics Letters, 89(1), 55-60.
- Deaton, A. S. (1977). Involuntary saving through unanticipated inflation,
American Economic Review, 67, 899-910.
- Drobny, A. ve Hall, S. G. (1989). An investigation of The long-run properties
of aggregate nondurable consumers’ expenditure in the United
Kingdom, Economic Journal, 99, 454-460.
- Duesenberry, J. S. (1949). Income, Saving and the Theory of Consumer
Behavior. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
- Elmi, Z. M. ve Ranjbar, O. (2013). Nonlinear adjustment to the mean reversion
of consumption-income ratio, Economic Modelling, 35, 477-480.
- Enders, W. ve Lee, J. (2012). A unit root test using a fourier series to
approximate smooth breaks, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and
Statistics, 74(4), 574-599.
- Erkan, S. ve Ceylan, S. (2021). Enflasyon belirsizliğinin kredi hacmi üzerindeki
etkisi, Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 20(79), 1370-1384.
- Fallahi, F. (2012). The Stationarity of Consumption-Income Ratios: Evidence
from Bootstrapping Confidence Intervals, Economics Letters, 115, 137-
140.
- Friedman, M. (1957). A Theory of the Consumption Function. Princeton
University Press, Princeton, 296s.
- Gomes, F. A. R. ve Franchini, D. S. (2009) The stationarity of consumptionincome ratios: evidence from South American Countries, Economia Aplicada, 13, 463-479.
- Gözgör, G. (2013). stochastic properties of the consumption-income ratios in
Central and Eastern European countries, Proceedings of Rijeka Faculty
of Economics: Journal of Economics and Business, 31(2), 193-207.
- Hall, S. G. ve Patterson, K. D. (1992). A systems approach to the relationship
between consumption and wealth, Applied Economics, 24, 1165-1171.
- Holmes, M. J. ve Shen, X. (2013). A note on the average propensity to consume,
wealth and threshold adjustment, Economic Modelling, 35, 309-313.
- Horioka, C. Y. (1997). A cointegration analysis of the impact of the age
structure of the population on the household saving rate in Japan,
Review of Economics and Statistics, 79, 511-515.
- Jin, F. (1995). Cointegration of consumption and disposable income: evidence
from twelve OECD Countries, Southern Economic Journal, 62, 77-88.
- Karul, Ç. (2016). Esnek Fourier Fonksiyonlu Yeni Bir Panel Birim Kök Testi
Önerisi ve OECD Örneği. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Pamukkale Üniversitesi
Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Denizli.
- Keynes, J. M. (1936). The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money.
London: MacMillan.
- King, R. G., Plosser, C. I., Stock, J. H. ve Watson, M. W. (1991). Stochastic
trends and economic fluctuations, American Economic Review, 81,
819-840.
- Liao, S. Y., Huang, M. L. ve Lan-Hsun, W. (2011). Mean-Reverting behavior of
consumption-income ratio in OECD countries: Evidence from
SURADF panel unit root tests, Economics Bulletin, AccessEcon, 31(1),
679-686.
- Marques, A. M. ve Pesavento, F. (2019). Is The average propensity to consume
stationary in the long run? testing panel data for unit roots exploiting
the cross-sectional dependence 1952-2014, 29th Ebes ConferenceLisbon Proceedings.
- Molana, H. (1991). The time series consumption function: error correction,
random walk and the steady state, Economic Journal, 101, 382-403.
Nazlıoğlu, S. ve Karul, C. (2017). Panel LM unit root test with gradual structural
shifts, 40th International Panel Data Conference, Thessaloniki-Greece,
1-26.
- Nelson, C. R. ve Plosser, C. R. (1982). Trends and random walks in
macroeconomics time series: some evidence and implications, Journal
of Monetary Economics, 10, 139-162.
- Pesaran, M. H. (2004). General diagnostic tests for cross section dependence
in panels. Cesifo Working Paper No:1229, Erişim adresi:
https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/18868/1/cesifo1_wp1229.pdf.
- Pesaran, M. H., Ullah, A. ve Yamagata, T. (2008). A bias-adjusted lm test of
error cross-section independence, Econometrics Journal, (11), 105-127.
- Romero-Avila, D. (2008). A confirmatory analysis of the unit root hypothesis
for OECD Consumption-Income Ratios, Applied Economics, 40(17),
2271-2278.
- Romero-Avila, D. (2009). Are OECD consumption-ıncome ratios stationary
after all? Economic Modelling, 26, 107-117.
- Sarantis, N. ve Stewart, C. (1999). Is the consumption-income ratio stationary?
evidence from panel unit root tests, Economics Letters, 64, 309-314.
- Saray, M. O. (2019). D-8 ekonomileri, dış ticaret desenleri ve Türkiye için
önemi: İhracat ve ithalat yoğunluğu endeksiyle bir değerlendirme,
Curr Res Soc Sci, 5(2), 171-188.
- Sivri, U. ve Seven, B. (2017). Ortalama tüketim eğilimi durağan mıdır? Türkiye
ekonomisi için bir zaman serisi analizi, Anadolu İktisat ve İşletme
Dergisi, 1(1), 50-65.
- Smithies, A. (1945). Forecasting Postwar Demand: I. Econometrica, 13(1), 1-14.
- Solarin, S. A. (2017). the stationarity of consumption-income ratios: nonlinear
evidence in ASEAN countries, Romanian Journal of Economic
Forecasting, 20(2), 109-123.
- Tarı, R. ve Çalışkan, Ş. (2005). Kocaeli ilinde tüketimin gelir hipotezlerinin
analizi, Atatürk Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 19(2), 1-19.
- Tsionas, E. ve Christopoulos, D. (2002). Non-sationarity in the consumptionıncome ratio: further evidence from panel and assymetric unit root tests, Economics Bulletin, 3(12), 1-5.
- Türkan, Y. ve Alakuştekin, A. (2017). Gelişen sekiz İslam ülkesinin (D-8
Ülkelerinin) dış ticaretinin yeterlilik analizi, Journal of Emerging
Economies And Policy, 2(1), 137-162.
- Türkmen, S. ve Özbek, S. (2021). Is unemployment hysteresis valid in BRICST countries? evidence from panel fourier LM approach, International Social Sciences Studies Journal, 7(78), 542-549.
- Uğur, B. (2021). Doğrudan yabancı yatırım girişlerinin ihracat üzerine etkileri:
G-20 ülkeleri örneği. Doktora tezi, Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam
Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Kahramanmaraş.
- Uğur, B., Özbek, S. ve Türkmen, S. (2020). Ortalama tüketim eğiliminin
durağanlığı: Türkiye örneği, Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi,
7(45), 294-307.
- Uğur, B. ve İspir, T. (2021). N11 ülkelerinde ortalama tüketim eğilimi durağan
mıdır? Uygulamalı Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 3(1-2), 15-28.
- Unat, E. (2018). Gelir ve tüketim ilişkisinin istikrarı: harcama gruplarına ve
zamana göre kantil regresyon modelden kanıtlar. Yüksek lisans tezi,
Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Balıkesir.
- Ungern-Sternberg, T.V. (1986). Inflation and The consumption function,
Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 122, 741-744.
- Ünsal, E. (2017). Makro İktisat. (11. Bs.), Ankara: Murat Yayınları.
- World Bank (Dünya Bankası), (2022). World Development Indicators.
https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-developmentindicators# (Erişim Tarihi: 30.09.2022).
- Yılancı, V., Zeren, F. ve Arı, A. (2013). Tüketim-Gelir oranı Güneydoğu Asya
ülkelerinde durağan mı? panel birim kök testi, Yönetim ve Ekonomi
Araştırmaları Dergisi, (21), 130-139.