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Biodiversity and Utilization Patterns of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Africa

Year 2024, Volume: 7 Issue: 2, 39 - 46
https://doi.org/10.55257/ethabd.1450876

Abstract

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) constitute a diverse array of botanical taxa cultivated or harvested primarily for their therapeutic properties and, or aromatic compounds. This study describes the biodiversity and usage patterns of medicinal and aromatic plants in Africa, offering a comprehensive exploration of the continent's rich natural resources. Through a meticulous examination of the diverse flora, the research sheds light on the historical, cultural, and ecological significance of these plants in traditional medicine and local practices. The objectives of the study include the evaluation of the diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants present in Africa, as well as the examination of their utilization, encompassing both traditional methodologies and modern applications. The findings of this study contribute to the ongoing discourse on sustainable biodiversity management and underscore the significance of these plants in both traditional and modern contexts.

References

  • Akerele, O., Heywood, V., & Synge, H. (Eds.), 1998. Conservation of medicinal plants. Cambridge University Press.
  • Aremu, A. O., & Pendota, S. C., 2021. Medicinal plants for mitigating pain and inflammatory-related conditions: an appraisal of ethnobotanical uses and patterns in South Africa. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 12:758583. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.758583.
  • Awuchi, C. G. 2019. Medicinal plants: the medical, food, and nutritional biochemistry and uses. International Journal of Advanced Academic Research, 5(11): 220-241.
  • Bakar, N., Franco, F. M., & Hassan, N. H., 2022. The intersection of Kedayan folk medicine and traditional ecological calendar. In Case Studies in Biocultural Diversity from Southeast Asia: Traditional Ecological Calendars, Folk Medicine and Folk Names, Springer Nature Singapore, pp. 105-124.
  • CEPF, 2015. The biodiversity Hotspots. Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. (http://www.cepf.net/resources/hotspots/Pages/default.aspxCritical).
  • Chaachouay, N., Benkhnigue, O., Khamar, H., & Zidane, L., 2020. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal and aromatic plants used in the treatment of genito-urinary diseases in the Moroccan Rif. J. Mater. Environ. Sci, 11(1):15–29. http://www.jmaterenvironsci.com.
  • Chekole, G., Asfaw, Z., & Kelbessa, E., 2015. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in the environs of Tara-gedam and Amba remnant forests of Libo Kemkem District, northwest Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 11(4). https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-11-4
  • Chen, S. L., Yu, H., Luo, H. M., 2016. Conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants: Problems, progress, and prospects. Chinese Medicine, 11 (37). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13020-016-0108-7
  • Cunningham, A. B., 1993. African Medicinal Plants: Setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary healthcare. People and Plants Working paper I. UNESCO, Paris, 92p.
  • Cunningham, A. B., 1997. An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation, and healthcare. In G. Bodeker, K. K. S. Bhat, J. Burley, & P. Vantomme (Eds.), Medicinal Plants for Forest Conservation and Healthcare, pp. 116–129. Non-Wood Forest Products No. 11. FAO, Rome.
  • El-Kamali, H. H., 2009. Medicinal plants in east and central Africa: challenges and constraints. Ethnobotanical Leaflets, 2 (13): 364–369.
  • El-Mernissi, Y., Zouhri, A., Labhar, A., El Menyiy, N., Ahari, M., El Barkany, S., Salhi, A., Bouyahya, A., Hajji, L., & Amhamdi, H. (2023). Indigenous knowledge of the traditional use of aromatic and medicinal plants in Rif Mountains Ketama District. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2023, Article ID 3977622, 1-16 https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/3977622
  • Elujoba AA, Odeleye OM, Ogunyemi CM., 2005. Traditional Medical Development for medical and dental primary healthcare delivery system in Africa. Afr. J. Traditional, Complementary and Alternate Med. 2(1): 46-61.
  • Fitzgerald, M., Heinrich, M., & Booker, A., 2020. Medicinal plant analysis: A historical and regional discussion of emergent complex techniques. Frontiers in pharmacology, 10:1480. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2019.01480 Guigma, Y., Zerbo, P., & Millogo-Rasolodimby, J.. 2012. Utilisation des espèces spontanées dans trois villages contigus du Sud du Burkina Faso. Tropicultura, 30:230–235.
  • Gurib-Fakim, A., 2006. Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Molecular Aspects of Medicine, 27(1), 1-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mam.2005.07.008. Hamilton, A. C., 2004. Medicinal plants, conservation and livelihoods. Biodiversity and Conservation, 13:1477–1517. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BIOC.0000021333.23413.42
  • Haslett, J. R., Berry, P. M., Bela, G., Jongman, R. H. G., Pataki, G., Samways, M. J., & Zobel, M., 2010. Changing conservation strategies in Europe: A framework integrating ecosystem services and dynamics. Biodiversity and Conservation, 19(11):2963. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-010-9906-7
  • IndexMundi, 2016. Endangered plant species in Africa. (Retrieved 06 May 2017. at: http://www. indexmundi.com/facts/indicators/EN.HPT.THRD.NO/map/africa
  • Jansen, O., Angenot, L., Tits, M., Nicolas, J. P., De Mol, P., Nikiéma, J.-B., ... & Frédérich, M., 2010. Evaluation of 13 selected medicinal plants from Burkina Faso for their antiplasmodial properties. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 130:143–150
  • Kaptan, B., & Sivri, G. T., 2018. Utilization of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Dairy Products. J Adv Plant Sci 1:205. www.scholarena.com.
  • Khalid, H., Abdalla, W. E., Abdelgadir, H., Opatz, T., & Efferth, T. (2012). Gems from traditional north-African medicine: Medicinal and aromatic plants from Sudan. Natural Products and Bioprospecting, 2(3), 92-103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13659-012-0015-2
  • Kumar, A., & Jnanesha, A. C., 2016. Medicinal and aromatic plants biodiversity in India and their future prospects: a review. Indian Journal of Unani Medicine, 9(1):10-17.. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314724944.
  • Lange, D., 2002. Medicinal and aromatic plants: trade, production, and management of botanical resources. In XXVI International Horticultural Congress, 11-17 August, Toronto, Canada. The Future for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, pp. 177-197.
  • Marrelli, M., 2021. Medicinal plants. Plants 10(7). MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10071355. Máthé, Á., Neffati, M., & Najjaa, H., 2017. Introduction to Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Africa, 3:1–17. Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-1120-1_1
  • Mengistu, M., Kebede, D., Atomsa, D., Abebe, A., & Alemnie, D., 2019. Status and utilization of medicinal and aromatic plants in Eastern Hararghe, Ethiopia. Cogent Food and Agriculture, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2019.1701349.
  • Moyo, M., Aremu, A. O., & Van Staden, J. (2015). Medicinal plants: An invaluable, dwindling resource in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 174:595-606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.04.034 Mukaila, Y. O., Oladipo, O. T., Arogundade, O. O., & AJao, A. A.-N., 2022. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used in Ile-Ife, Southwestern Nigeria. Asian Journal of Ethnobiology, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.13057/asianjethnobiol/y050201.
  • Nwafor, I., Nwafor, C., & Manduna, I., 2021. Constraints to cultivation of medicinal plants by smallholder farmers in South Africa. Horticulturae, 7(12):531. MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7120531.
  • Okigbo, R. N., & Ogbogu., 2008. Biodiversity and conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Africa. Biotechnology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 3(6):127–134. http://www.academicjournals.org/BMBR.
  • Okigbo, R. N., Anuagasi, C. L., & Amadi, J. E., 2009. Advances in selected medicinal and aromatic plants indigenous to Africa. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 3(2):86-95. http://www.academicjournals.org/JMPR.
  • Padulosi, S., Leaman, D., & Quek, P., 2002. Challenges and opportunities in enhancing the conservation and use of medicinal and aromatic plants. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants 9( 4):243–267. https://doi.org/10.1300/J044v09n04_01.
  • Quattrocchi, U. (2016). CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology (5 Volume Set). CRC Press.
  • Rajamani, K., Nalina, L., & Hegde, L., 2019. Medicinal and aromatic crops. AgriMoon, pp.1-195.
  • Roche L., 1992. Guidelines for the Methodology of Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources. In: The Methodology of Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources- Report on a Pilot Project. FAO. Rome. pp. 201-203.
  • Sahoo, M. K., 2022. Ancient evolution of medicinal and aromatic plants as drugs. Global Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, 10(2):1-2. DOI: 10.15651/2449-1888.22.10.172
  • Solomou, A. D., Martinos, K., Skoufogianni, E., & Danalatos, N. G., 2016. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Diversity in Greece and Their Future Prospects: A Review. Agricultural Science, 4(1):9–20. https://doi.org/10.12735/as.v4i1p09.
  • Tantengco, O. A. G., Condes, M. L. C., Estadilla, H. H. T., & Ragragio, E. M., 2018. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by ayta communities in Dinalupihan, Bataan, Philippines. Pharmacognosy Journal 10(5):859–870). EManuscript Technologies. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2018.5.145.
  • UNESCO., 1994. Traditional knowledge in Tropical Environment Nature and Resource, 39(1) UNESCO, Paris. Van Wyk, B. E. (2020). A family-level floristic inventory and analysis of medicinal plants used in Traditional African Medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 249:112351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2019.112351
  • Vasisht, K., & Kumar, V., 2004. Compendium of medicinal and aromatic plants volume 1. Pp. 23-38. Zizka, A., Thiombiano, A., Dressler, S., Nacoulma, B. M., Ouédraogo, A., Ouédraogo, I., ... & Schmidt, M., 2015. Traditional plant use in Burkina Faso (West Africa): a national-scale analysis with focus on traditional medicine. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 11:1-10.
  • Zougagh, S., Belghiti, A., Rochd, T., Zerdani, I., & Mouslim, J. (2019). Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Used in Traditional Treatment of Oral Pathology: The Ethnobotanical Survey in the Economic Capital Casablanca, Morocco (North Africa). Natural Product Bioprospecting, 9(1):35–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13659-018-0194-6

Afrika'da Tıbbi ve Aromatik Bitkilerin Biyoçeşitliliği ve Kullanım Şekilleri

Year 2024, Volume: 7 Issue: 2, 39 - 46
https://doi.org/10.55257/ethabd.1450876

Abstract

Tıbbi ve aromatik bitkiler, tedavi edici özellikleri ve hoş kokulu bileşenleri için yetiştirilen veya toplanan çeşitli bitki türlerini içerir. Bu çalışma, Afrika'daki tıbbi ve aromatik bitkilerin çeşitliliğini ve kullanım şekillerini inceleyerek, kıtanın zengin doğal kaynaklarını kapsamlı bir şekilde keşfetmektedir. Farklı bitki türlerinin dikkatli bir şekilde incelenmesiyle, araştırma bu bitkilerin geleneksel tıp ve yerel uygulamalardaki tarihsel, kültürel ve ekolojik önemini ortaya koymaktadır. Çalışmanın hedefleri, Afrika'da bulunan tıbbi ve aromatik bitkilerin çeşitliliğini değerlendirmek ve bunların kullanımını geleneksel ve modern yöntemleri içeren bir şekilde incelemektir. Bu çalışmanın bulguları, sürdürülebilir biyolojik çeşitlilik yönetimi konusundaki tartışmalara katkıda bulunmakta ve bu bitkilerin hem geleneksel hem de modern bağlamlardaki önemini vurgulamaktadır.

References

  • Akerele, O., Heywood, V., & Synge, H. (Eds.), 1998. Conservation of medicinal plants. Cambridge University Press.
  • Aremu, A. O., & Pendota, S. C., 2021. Medicinal plants for mitigating pain and inflammatory-related conditions: an appraisal of ethnobotanical uses and patterns in South Africa. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 12:758583. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.758583.
  • Awuchi, C. G. 2019. Medicinal plants: the medical, food, and nutritional biochemistry and uses. International Journal of Advanced Academic Research, 5(11): 220-241.
  • Bakar, N., Franco, F. M., & Hassan, N. H., 2022. The intersection of Kedayan folk medicine and traditional ecological calendar. In Case Studies in Biocultural Diversity from Southeast Asia: Traditional Ecological Calendars, Folk Medicine and Folk Names, Springer Nature Singapore, pp. 105-124.
  • CEPF, 2015. The biodiversity Hotspots. Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. (http://www.cepf.net/resources/hotspots/Pages/default.aspxCritical).
  • Chaachouay, N., Benkhnigue, O., Khamar, H., & Zidane, L., 2020. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal and aromatic plants used in the treatment of genito-urinary diseases in the Moroccan Rif. J. Mater. Environ. Sci, 11(1):15–29. http://www.jmaterenvironsci.com.
  • Chekole, G., Asfaw, Z., & Kelbessa, E., 2015. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in the environs of Tara-gedam and Amba remnant forests of Libo Kemkem District, northwest Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 11(4). https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-11-4
  • Chen, S. L., Yu, H., Luo, H. M., 2016. Conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants: Problems, progress, and prospects. Chinese Medicine, 11 (37). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13020-016-0108-7
  • Cunningham, A. B., 1993. African Medicinal Plants: Setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary healthcare. People and Plants Working paper I. UNESCO, Paris, 92p.
  • Cunningham, A. B., 1997. An Africa-wide overview of medicinal plant harvesting, conservation, and healthcare. In G. Bodeker, K. K. S. Bhat, J. Burley, & P. Vantomme (Eds.), Medicinal Plants for Forest Conservation and Healthcare, pp. 116–129. Non-Wood Forest Products No. 11. FAO, Rome.
  • El-Kamali, H. H., 2009. Medicinal plants in east and central Africa: challenges and constraints. Ethnobotanical Leaflets, 2 (13): 364–369.
  • El-Mernissi, Y., Zouhri, A., Labhar, A., El Menyiy, N., Ahari, M., El Barkany, S., Salhi, A., Bouyahya, A., Hajji, L., & Amhamdi, H. (2023). Indigenous knowledge of the traditional use of aromatic and medicinal plants in Rif Mountains Ketama District. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2023, Article ID 3977622, 1-16 https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/3977622
  • Elujoba AA, Odeleye OM, Ogunyemi CM., 2005. Traditional Medical Development for medical and dental primary healthcare delivery system in Africa. Afr. J. Traditional, Complementary and Alternate Med. 2(1): 46-61.
  • Fitzgerald, M., Heinrich, M., & Booker, A., 2020. Medicinal plant analysis: A historical and regional discussion of emergent complex techniques. Frontiers in pharmacology, 10:1480. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2019.01480 Guigma, Y., Zerbo, P., & Millogo-Rasolodimby, J.. 2012. Utilisation des espèces spontanées dans trois villages contigus du Sud du Burkina Faso. Tropicultura, 30:230–235.
  • Gurib-Fakim, A., 2006. Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Molecular Aspects of Medicine, 27(1), 1-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mam.2005.07.008. Hamilton, A. C., 2004. Medicinal plants, conservation and livelihoods. Biodiversity and Conservation, 13:1477–1517. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BIOC.0000021333.23413.42
  • Haslett, J. R., Berry, P. M., Bela, G., Jongman, R. H. G., Pataki, G., Samways, M. J., & Zobel, M., 2010. Changing conservation strategies in Europe: A framework integrating ecosystem services and dynamics. Biodiversity and Conservation, 19(11):2963. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-010-9906-7
  • IndexMundi, 2016. Endangered plant species in Africa. (Retrieved 06 May 2017. at: http://www. indexmundi.com/facts/indicators/EN.HPT.THRD.NO/map/africa
  • Jansen, O., Angenot, L., Tits, M., Nicolas, J. P., De Mol, P., Nikiéma, J.-B., ... & Frédérich, M., 2010. Evaluation of 13 selected medicinal plants from Burkina Faso for their antiplasmodial properties. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 130:143–150
  • Kaptan, B., & Sivri, G. T., 2018. Utilization of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Dairy Products. J Adv Plant Sci 1:205. www.scholarena.com.
  • Khalid, H., Abdalla, W. E., Abdelgadir, H., Opatz, T., & Efferth, T. (2012). Gems from traditional north-African medicine: Medicinal and aromatic plants from Sudan. Natural Products and Bioprospecting, 2(3), 92-103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13659-012-0015-2
  • Kumar, A., & Jnanesha, A. C., 2016. Medicinal and aromatic plants biodiversity in India and their future prospects: a review. Indian Journal of Unani Medicine, 9(1):10-17.. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314724944.
  • Lange, D., 2002. Medicinal and aromatic plants: trade, production, and management of botanical resources. In XXVI International Horticultural Congress, 11-17 August, Toronto, Canada. The Future for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, pp. 177-197.
  • Marrelli, M., 2021. Medicinal plants. Plants 10(7). MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10071355. Máthé, Á., Neffati, M., & Najjaa, H., 2017. Introduction to Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Africa, 3:1–17. Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-1120-1_1
  • Mengistu, M., Kebede, D., Atomsa, D., Abebe, A., & Alemnie, D., 2019. Status and utilization of medicinal and aromatic plants in Eastern Hararghe, Ethiopia. Cogent Food and Agriculture, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2019.1701349.
  • Moyo, M., Aremu, A. O., & Van Staden, J. (2015). Medicinal plants: An invaluable, dwindling resource in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 174:595-606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.04.034 Mukaila, Y. O., Oladipo, O. T., Arogundade, O. O., & AJao, A. A.-N., 2022. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used in Ile-Ife, Southwestern Nigeria. Asian Journal of Ethnobiology, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.13057/asianjethnobiol/y050201.
  • Nwafor, I., Nwafor, C., & Manduna, I., 2021. Constraints to cultivation of medicinal plants by smallholder farmers in South Africa. Horticulturae, 7(12):531. MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7120531.
  • Okigbo, R. N., & Ogbogu., 2008. Biodiversity and conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Africa. Biotechnology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 3(6):127–134. http://www.academicjournals.org/BMBR.
  • Okigbo, R. N., Anuagasi, C. L., & Amadi, J. E., 2009. Advances in selected medicinal and aromatic plants indigenous to Africa. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 3(2):86-95. http://www.academicjournals.org/JMPR.
  • Padulosi, S., Leaman, D., & Quek, P., 2002. Challenges and opportunities in enhancing the conservation and use of medicinal and aromatic plants. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants 9( 4):243–267. https://doi.org/10.1300/J044v09n04_01.
  • Quattrocchi, U. (2016). CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology (5 Volume Set). CRC Press.
  • Rajamani, K., Nalina, L., & Hegde, L., 2019. Medicinal and aromatic crops. AgriMoon, pp.1-195.
  • Roche L., 1992. Guidelines for the Methodology of Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources. In: The Methodology of Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources- Report on a Pilot Project. FAO. Rome. pp. 201-203.
  • Sahoo, M. K., 2022. Ancient evolution of medicinal and aromatic plants as drugs. Global Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, 10(2):1-2. DOI: 10.15651/2449-1888.22.10.172
  • Solomou, A. D., Martinos, K., Skoufogianni, E., & Danalatos, N. G., 2016. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Diversity in Greece and Their Future Prospects: A Review. Agricultural Science, 4(1):9–20. https://doi.org/10.12735/as.v4i1p09.
  • Tantengco, O. A. G., Condes, M. L. C., Estadilla, H. H. T., & Ragragio, E. M., 2018. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by ayta communities in Dinalupihan, Bataan, Philippines. Pharmacognosy Journal 10(5):859–870). EManuscript Technologies. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2018.5.145.
  • UNESCO., 1994. Traditional knowledge in Tropical Environment Nature and Resource, 39(1) UNESCO, Paris. Van Wyk, B. E. (2020). A family-level floristic inventory and analysis of medicinal plants used in Traditional African Medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 249:112351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2019.112351
  • Vasisht, K., & Kumar, V., 2004. Compendium of medicinal and aromatic plants volume 1. Pp. 23-38. Zizka, A., Thiombiano, A., Dressler, S., Nacoulma, B. M., Ouédraogo, A., Ouédraogo, I., ... & Schmidt, M., 2015. Traditional plant use in Burkina Faso (West Africa): a national-scale analysis with focus on traditional medicine. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 11:1-10.
  • Zougagh, S., Belghiti, A., Rochd, T., Zerdani, I., & Mouslim, J. (2019). Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Used in Traditional Treatment of Oral Pathology: The Ethnobotanical Survey in the Economic Capital Casablanca, Morocco (North Africa). Natural Product Bioprospecting, 9(1):35–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13659-018-0194-6
There are 38 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Zootechny (Other)
Journal Section Review Article
Authors

Mohamed Said 0000-0002-1470-4725

Mohamed Mursal Ibrahim 0009-0006-0371-7973

Erman Beyzi 0000-0002-0248-4227

Ali İrfan İlbaş 0000-0001-9640-5237

Early Pub Date September 20, 2024
Publication Date
Submission Date March 11, 2024
Acceptance Date May 16, 2024
Published in Issue Year 2024 Volume: 7 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Said, M., Ibrahim, M. M., Beyzi, E., İlbaş, A. İ. (2024). Biodiversity and Utilization Patterns of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Africa. Erciyes Tarım Ve Hayvan Bilimleri Dergisi, 7(2), 39-46. https://doi.org/10.55257/ethabd.1450876