EFFORTS TO BUILD A EUROPEAN ARMY IN THE PRE-BREXIT PERIOD AS PART OF THE EUROPEAN UNION'S COMMON SECURITY AND DEFENCE POLICY
Yıl 2024,
Cilt: 15 Sayı: 2, 196 - 223, 19.12.2024
Mehmet Direkli
,
Ayhan Kaymak
Öz
The European Union has taken many concrete steps in its common defence policy due to the environment created by the changed security perception, especially after the end of the Cold War. Some of these concrete steps relate to military power, which is an essential component of security. The structure of the armed forces necessary for the implementation of an effective common security and defence policy has led to various debates within the Union. The aim of this article is to examine whether it is possible for the European Union to build a European army within the framework of the Common Security and Defence Policy by incorporating the perspectives of France, Germany and other EU Members. In this article, Andrew Moravcsik's liberal intergovernmental approach has been used as a theoretical framework, and the period from the founding of the European Union to the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from membership has been discussed.
Kaynakça
- Akgül Açıkmeşe, S. (2004). “Uluslararası İlişkiler Teorileri Işığında Avrupa Bütünleşmesi”, Uluslararası İlişkiler Akademik Dergisi, 1(1), pp. 1-32.
- Akgül Açıkmeşe, S. & Dizdaroğlu, C. (2014). “NATO-AB İlişkilerinde İşbirliği ve Çatışma Dinamikleri”, Uluslararası İlişkiler Akademik Dergisi, 10(40), pp. 131-163.
- Aliyev, J. (2019). “Crotia: NATO is Backbone of European Security”, Anadolu Agency, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/croatia-nato-is-backbone-of-european-security /1514647 (Accessed: 24 November 2024).
- Arısoy, A. (2010). “Avrupa'da Federalizm Geleneği ve Avrupa Bütünleşmesinde Federalist Akımlar”, Ege Akademik Bakış, 10(4), pp. 1195-1206.
- Asiran, A. (2018). “Dutch Defence Chief Opposed to European Army”, Anadolu Agency, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/dutch-defense-chief-opposed-to-european-army/1312911# (Accessed: 20 November 2024).
- Ateş, E. (2019). “Avrupa Birliği'nin Ortak Savunma Kimliğinde Almanya'nın Rolü”. In Biçer, S. & Yıldız, A. (eds.), Yeni Dünya Ekonomi ve Güvenlik Mimarisi. İstanbul: TASAM Yayınları, pp. 153-168.
- Ayhan, H. (2020). “Fransa ve Aachen Antlaşması Çerçevesinde Avrupa Ordusu Çabaları”, Akademik Araştırmalar ve Çalışmalar Dergisi, 12(23), pp. 511-531.
- Avrupa Tek Senedi (1987). Available at: https://www.ikv.org.tr/images/files/A4-tr.pdf (Accessed: 10 February 2021).
- Aytuğ, K. (2008). “Bütünleşme Kuramlarının Avrupa Birliği Genişlemesine Bakışı”, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Yönetim ve Ekonomi Dergisi, 15(1), pp. 149-161.
- Bahadır, T. (2018). “21. Yüzyıl'a Başlarken Almanya'nın Yeni Dış Politika Vizyonu”, Türkiye Siyaset Bilimi Dergisi, 1(1), pp. 175-187.
- Barigazzi, J. (2016a). “Britain Digs in against EU Army”, Politico. Available at: https://www.politico.eu/article/britain-digs-in-against-eu-army-u-k-defense-minister-michael-fallon/ (Accessed: 20 June 2024).
- Beesley, A. (2016). “Italy and Spian Warm to EU Defence Co-Operation”, Financial Times, https://www.ft.com/content/ddad201e-50c9-36fc-b694-8e9522fb9323 (Accessed: 16 November 2024).
- Ceklova, M. (2017). “Slovakia Prefers the Core of the EU to V4”, European Security Journal, https://www.esjnews.com/slovakia-eu-v4 (Accessed: 16 November 2024).
- Çelik, Ü. (2017). “AB’nin Küresel Stratejisi ve AB Ordusu Tartışmaları”. İçinde Keçeci A. İ. (der.), Brexit Sonrası Birleşik Krallık ve AB’nin Geleceği,İstanbul: Akademos Yayınları, s. 205-217.
- Dede, D. (2012). “Çok Düzeyli Yönetişim Kavramı(nın) Bilimselliği Sorunu”, Kuram ve Yönetim Açısından Türkiye'de Kamu Yönetimi (Bildiriler Kitabı), TODAİE Yayınları, No: 367, pp. 243-255.
- Dempsey, J. (2016). “The Insincere Calls for a European Army”, Carnegie Europe, https://carnegieeurope.eu/strategiceurope/64483 (Accessed: 16 November 2024).
- Deutsche Welle (2021). “Visegrad Countries Urge EU to Build a Common Army”, https://www.dw.com/en/visegrad-countries-urge-eu-to-build-a-common-army/a-195 07603 (Accessed: 16 November 2024).
- Diacono, T. (2017). “Malta Will Not Join EU Army, But Will Not Block Proposal”, Malta Today, https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/europe/75754/malta_ will_ not_
join_eu_army_but_will_not_block_proposal__muscat#.YLpYCbczbIU (Accessed: 16 November 2024).
- Efe, H. (2010). “Soğuk Savaş Döneminde Avrupa'da Ortak Dış Politika Oluşturma Çabaları”, Ankara Avrupa Çalışmaları Dergisi, 9(1), pp. 37-62.
- European Movement Ireland (2021). “Ireland and the EU Poll 2021”, https://www.europeanmovement.ie/ireland-eu-2021-press-release/ (Accessed: 16 November 2024).
- Flora, A. (2015). “UK, Central Europe Frowned at Juncker's European Army”, Euractiv. Available at: https://www.euractiv.com/section/global-europe/news/uk-central-europe frown-at-juncker-s-european-army (Accessed: 8 June 2024).
- Gözkaman, A. (2014). “Avrupa Savunma Topluluğu'nun Reddi Üzerine Bir Analiz”, Beykent Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7(2), pp. 6-19.
- Kahraman, S. (2003). “Avrupa Birliği ve Irak Krizi: Bölünmeden Yeniden Birleşmeye Uzun, İnce Yol”, Ankara Avrupa Çalışmaları Dergisi, 2(4), pp. 151-161.
- Kıratlı, O. (2016). “Avrupa Dış İlişkiler ve Güvenlik Politikası ve Üç Büyükler: Almanya, Fransa ve İngiltere”, Akademik İncelemeler Dergisi, 11(1), pp. 207-224.
- Kızıltan, A. & Kaya, Y. (2005). “Avrupa Birliği'nin Ortak Dışişleri ve Güvenlik Politikasında Bir Bakış”, İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 19(1), pp. 201-225.
- Kocamaz, S. (2010). “Lizbon Antlaşması Çerçevesinde Avrupa Birliği Ortak Güvenlik ve Savunma Politikasının Geleceği”. Ege Akademik Bakış, 10(3), pp. 951-980.
- Luxembourg Times (2015). “Luxembourg Would Contribute to Common European Army”,https://www.luxtimes.lu/en/luxembourg/luxembourg-would-contri bute-to-common-european-army-602d32c8de135b9236203822 (Accessed: 18 November 2024).
- McCormick, J. (2015). European Union Politics (Macmillan Foundations Series). Palgrave Foundations.
- Mehta, A. (2019). “Sweden’s Defence Minister on Relations with America, Russian Threats and the European Union”, Defense News, https://www.defensenews.com/smr/nato-2020-defined/2019/12/27/swedens-defense-minister-on-relations-with-america-russian-threats-and-the-european-union/ (Accessed: 18 November 2024).
- Moravcsik, A. (1993). “Preferences and Power in the European Community: A Liberal Intergovernmentalist Approach”, Journal of Common Market Studies, 31(4), pp. 473-524.
- Moravcsik, A. (1998). The Choice for Europe: Social Purpose and State Power from Messina to Maastricht. Oxford: Routledge Publishing.
- Moravcsik, A. (2018). “Preferences, Power and Institutions in 21st-century Europe”, Journal of Common Market Studies, 56(7), pp. 1648-1674.
- Moravcsik, A. & Schimmelfennig, F. (2019). “Liberal Intergovernmentalism”. In Wiener, A., Borzel, T.A. & Risse, T. (eds.) European Integration Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 64-84.
- Olesen, M.R. (2020). “Denmark”. In Fagersten, B. (der.), The Nordic and the New European Security Architecture, Stocholm: The Swedish Institute of the International Affairs, s. 1-36.
- Owen, R. (2009). “Italy’s Foreign Minister Says Post Lisbon EU Needs a European Army”, The Times, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/italys-foreign-minister-says-post-lisbon-eu-needs-a-european-army-p2z7hxv5x85 (Accessed: 18 November 2024).
- Özdal, B. (2013). Avrupa Birliği Siyasi Bir Cüce, Askeri Bir Solucan mı? Ortak Dış Politika ve Güvenlik Politikası ile Ortak Güvenlik ve Savunma Politikası Oluşturma Süreçlerinin Tarihsel Gelişimi. Bursa: Dora Yayıncılık.
- Özdal, B. & Genç, M. (2004). Avrupa Güvenlik ve Savunma Politikası'nın Türkiye-AB İlişkilerine Etkileri. Bursa: Aktüel Yayınları.
- Pagani, F. (1998). “A New Gear in the CFSP Machinery: Integration of the Petersberg Tasks in the Treaty on European Union”, European Journal of International Law, 9, pp. 737- 749.
- Pirner, K. (2018). “Spain Seeks to Take on a Greater Role in EU Security & Defence Policy”, South EU Summit, https://southeusummit.com/europe/spain/spain-seeks-take-greater-role-eu-security-defence-policy/ (Accessed: 18 November 2024).
- Raidio Teilifis Eireann (2018). “European Army Proposal Goes Too Far–Dutch PM”,https://www.rte.ie/news/europe/2018/1116/1011481-eu-army/#main content (Accessed: 18 November 2024).
- Rohan, S. (2014). The Western Europe Union: International Politics between Alliance and Integration. New York: Routledge Publishing.
- Samuel, H. (2018). “Macron Wants Euro Army To Combat China, Russia and US”, The Sydney Morning Herald, 7 November. Available at: https://www.smh.com.au/world/europe/macron-wants-euro-army-to-combat-china-russia-and-us-20181107-p50ef7.html (Accessed: 28 May 2021).
- Schweizer, D. & Ondarza, N. (2007). “Three cylinders for a new integration engine? Preconditions and Challenges for a British-German-French Leadership Role in the ESDP”. Discussion Paper of FG1, 2007/20 SWP Berlin.
- Şirin, B. (2020). “Değişen Dünya Düzeninde Yeni Alman Dış Politikası”, Ankara Avrupa Çalışmaları Dergisi, 19(2), pp. 467-500.
- Tangör, B. (2010). Avrupa Birliği'nin Dış Güvenlik ve Savunma Politikaları: OGSP. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.
- Terlikowski (2021). “Return of the European Army Idea?”, The Polish Institute of International Affairs, https://pism.pl/publications/Return_of_the_European_Army_ Idea (Accessed: 20 November 2024).
- Tezcan, E. (1999). “Maastricht ve Amsterdam Antlaşmalan Çerçevesinde Avrupa Birliği ve Batı Avrupa Birliği İlişkileri”. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 54(1), pp. 143-158.
- Türker, H. (2007). Avrupa Güvenlik ve Savunma Politikası. Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım.
- The Baltic Times (2018). “Estonian, Latvian, Polish Officials Sceptical of Juncher’s EU Army Idea”, https://www.baltictimes.com/estonian__latvian__polish_ officials _ sceptical_on_ juncker_s_eu_army_idea/ (Accessed: 20 November 2024).
- The Baltic Times (2019). “Statements on EU Army Cause US Distrust, Lithuanian Formin Says”, https://www.baltictimes.com/statements_on_eu_army_cause_us_ distrust__lithuanian_formin_says/ (Accessed: 20 November 2024).
- The Journal (2019) “If It Walks Like a Duck, Talks Like a Duck...' - Dublin MEP Candidates Clash Over Potential for EU Army”, https://www.thejournal.ie/eu-army-debate-dublin-4620782-May2019/(Accessed: 20 November 2024).
- The Portugal Times (2018) “European Army Not Needed to Bolster Defence Commitment Present”,https://www.theportugalnews.com/news/european-army-not-needed-to-bolster-defence-commitment-president/47512 (Accessed: 20 November 2024).
- The Slovenia Times (2018). “Slovenia Support EU Army Idea, But…”, https://sloveniatimes.com/slovenia-supports-eu-army-idea-but/ (Accessed: 20 November 2024).
- Trend News Agency (2019). “There is No Need to Create EU Army – Swedish Defence Minister”, https://en.trend.az/world/europe/3020314.html (Accessed: 20 November 2024).
- Visegrad Post (2017). “Central Europe and the European Army”, https://visegradpost.com/en/2017/03/10/central-europe-and-the-european-army/ (Accessed: 20 November 2024).
- Vytiska, H. (2016). “Divided Austria Unites in Opposition to EU Army”, Euractiv, https://www.euractiv.com/section/security/news/divided-austria-unites-in-opposition-to-eu-army/ (Accessed: 22 November 2024).
- Vytiska, H. (2017). “Austria Divided Over Idea of EU Army”, Euractiv, https://www.euractiv.com/section/defence-policy/news/austria-divided-over-idea-of-eu-army/ (Accessed: 22 November 2024).
- Warsaw Institute (2018). “Finnish Ministry of National Defence Sceptical about the European Army”, https://warsawinstitute.org/finnish-ministry-national-def ence-sceptical-european-army/ (Accessed: 22 November 2024).
- Xinhua (2019). “Bulgarian Offical Says Common European Defense Face Challenges”, http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-11/07/c_138537133.htm (Accessed: 22 November 2024).
- Yiğittepe, L. (2017). Avrupa Birliği'nde Güvenlik Politikaları ve Arayışları Kavram, Kuram ve Uygulama. İstanbul: Cinius Yayınları.
- Yleisradio (2019). “Few in Finland Enthusiastic About an EU Army”, https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/few_in_finland_enthusiastic_about_an_eu_army/10792137 (Accessed: 22 November 2024).
- Zhussipbek, G. (2009). “2007 Lizbon Antlaşması, Güvenlik ve Savunma Politikasının Tanımı ve Özellikleri, Güvenlik Aktörü Olarak AB'nin Nitelikleri”. Ankara Avrupa Çalışmaları Dergisi, 8(1), pp. 139-164.
EFFORTS TO BUILD A EUROPEAN ARMY IN THE PRE-BREXIT PERIOD AS PART OF THE EUROPEAN UNION'S COMMON SECURITY AND DEFENCE POLICY
Yıl 2024,
Cilt: 15 Sayı: 2, 196 - 223, 19.12.2024
Mehmet Direkli
,
Ayhan Kaymak
Öz
The European Union has taken many concrete steps in its common defence policy due to the environment created by the changed security perception, especially after the end of the Cold War. Some of these concrete steps relate to military power, which is an essential component of security. The structure of the armed forces necessary for the implementation of an effective common security and defence policy has led to various debates within the Union. The aim of this article is to examine whether it is possible for the European Union to build a European army within the framework of the Common Security and Defence Policy by incorporating the perspectives of France, Germany and other EU Members. In this article, Andrew Moravcsik's liberal intergovernmental approach has been used as a theoretical framework, and the period from the founding of the European Union to the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from membership has been discussed.
Kaynakça
- Akgül Açıkmeşe, S. (2004). “Uluslararası İlişkiler Teorileri Işığında Avrupa Bütünleşmesi”, Uluslararası İlişkiler Akademik Dergisi, 1(1), pp. 1-32.
- Akgül Açıkmeşe, S. & Dizdaroğlu, C. (2014). “NATO-AB İlişkilerinde İşbirliği ve Çatışma Dinamikleri”, Uluslararası İlişkiler Akademik Dergisi, 10(40), pp. 131-163.
- Aliyev, J. (2019). “Crotia: NATO is Backbone of European Security”, Anadolu Agency, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/croatia-nato-is-backbone-of-european-security /1514647 (Accessed: 24 November 2024).
- Arısoy, A. (2010). “Avrupa'da Federalizm Geleneği ve Avrupa Bütünleşmesinde Federalist Akımlar”, Ege Akademik Bakış, 10(4), pp. 1195-1206.
- Asiran, A. (2018). “Dutch Defence Chief Opposed to European Army”, Anadolu Agency, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/dutch-defense-chief-opposed-to-european-army/1312911# (Accessed: 20 November 2024).
- Ateş, E. (2019). “Avrupa Birliği'nin Ortak Savunma Kimliğinde Almanya'nın Rolü”. In Biçer, S. & Yıldız, A. (eds.), Yeni Dünya Ekonomi ve Güvenlik Mimarisi. İstanbul: TASAM Yayınları, pp. 153-168.
- Ayhan, H. (2020). “Fransa ve Aachen Antlaşması Çerçevesinde Avrupa Ordusu Çabaları”, Akademik Araştırmalar ve Çalışmalar Dergisi, 12(23), pp. 511-531.
- Avrupa Tek Senedi (1987). Available at: https://www.ikv.org.tr/images/files/A4-tr.pdf (Accessed: 10 February 2021).
- Aytuğ, K. (2008). “Bütünleşme Kuramlarının Avrupa Birliği Genişlemesine Bakışı”, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Yönetim ve Ekonomi Dergisi, 15(1), pp. 149-161.
- Bahadır, T. (2018). “21. Yüzyıl'a Başlarken Almanya'nın Yeni Dış Politika Vizyonu”, Türkiye Siyaset Bilimi Dergisi, 1(1), pp. 175-187.
- Barigazzi, J. (2016a). “Britain Digs in against EU Army”, Politico. Available at: https://www.politico.eu/article/britain-digs-in-against-eu-army-u-k-defense-minister-michael-fallon/ (Accessed: 20 June 2024).
- Beesley, A. (2016). “Italy and Spian Warm to EU Defence Co-Operation”, Financial Times, https://www.ft.com/content/ddad201e-50c9-36fc-b694-8e9522fb9323 (Accessed: 16 November 2024).
- Ceklova, M. (2017). “Slovakia Prefers the Core of the EU to V4”, European Security Journal, https://www.esjnews.com/slovakia-eu-v4 (Accessed: 16 November 2024).
- Çelik, Ü. (2017). “AB’nin Küresel Stratejisi ve AB Ordusu Tartışmaları”. İçinde Keçeci A. İ. (der.), Brexit Sonrası Birleşik Krallık ve AB’nin Geleceği,İstanbul: Akademos Yayınları, s. 205-217.
- Dede, D. (2012). “Çok Düzeyli Yönetişim Kavramı(nın) Bilimselliği Sorunu”, Kuram ve Yönetim Açısından Türkiye'de Kamu Yönetimi (Bildiriler Kitabı), TODAİE Yayınları, No: 367, pp. 243-255.
- Dempsey, J. (2016). “The Insincere Calls for a European Army”, Carnegie Europe, https://carnegieeurope.eu/strategiceurope/64483 (Accessed: 16 November 2024).
- Deutsche Welle (2021). “Visegrad Countries Urge EU to Build a Common Army”, https://www.dw.com/en/visegrad-countries-urge-eu-to-build-a-common-army/a-195 07603 (Accessed: 16 November 2024).
- Diacono, T. (2017). “Malta Will Not Join EU Army, But Will Not Block Proposal”, Malta Today, https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/europe/75754/malta_ will_ not_
join_eu_army_but_will_not_block_proposal__muscat#.YLpYCbczbIU (Accessed: 16 November 2024).
- Efe, H. (2010). “Soğuk Savaş Döneminde Avrupa'da Ortak Dış Politika Oluşturma Çabaları”, Ankara Avrupa Çalışmaları Dergisi, 9(1), pp. 37-62.
- European Movement Ireland (2021). “Ireland and the EU Poll 2021”, https://www.europeanmovement.ie/ireland-eu-2021-press-release/ (Accessed: 16 November 2024).
- Flora, A. (2015). “UK, Central Europe Frowned at Juncker's European Army”, Euractiv. Available at: https://www.euractiv.com/section/global-europe/news/uk-central-europe frown-at-juncker-s-european-army (Accessed: 8 June 2024).
- Gözkaman, A. (2014). “Avrupa Savunma Topluluğu'nun Reddi Üzerine Bir Analiz”, Beykent Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7(2), pp. 6-19.
- Kahraman, S. (2003). “Avrupa Birliği ve Irak Krizi: Bölünmeden Yeniden Birleşmeye Uzun, İnce Yol”, Ankara Avrupa Çalışmaları Dergisi, 2(4), pp. 151-161.
- Kıratlı, O. (2016). “Avrupa Dış İlişkiler ve Güvenlik Politikası ve Üç Büyükler: Almanya, Fransa ve İngiltere”, Akademik İncelemeler Dergisi, 11(1), pp. 207-224.
- Kızıltan, A. & Kaya, Y. (2005). “Avrupa Birliği'nin Ortak Dışişleri ve Güvenlik Politikasında Bir Bakış”, İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 19(1), pp. 201-225.
- Kocamaz, S. (2010). “Lizbon Antlaşması Çerçevesinde Avrupa Birliği Ortak Güvenlik ve Savunma Politikasının Geleceği”. Ege Akademik Bakış, 10(3), pp. 951-980.
- Luxembourg Times (2015). “Luxembourg Would Contribute to Common European Army”,https://www.luxtimes.lu/en/luxembourg/luxembourg-would-contri bute-to-common-european-army-602d32c8de135b9236203822 (Accessed: 18 November 2024).
- McCormick, J. (2015). European Union Politics (Macmillan Foundations Series). Palgrave Foundations.
- Mehta, A. (2019). “Sweden’s Defence Minister on Relations with America, Russian Threats and the European Union”, Defense News, https://www.defensenews.com/smr/nato-2020-defined/2019/12/27/swedens-defense-minister-on-relations-with-america-russian-threats-and-the-european-union/ (Accessed: 18 November 2024).
- Moravcsik, A. (1993). “Preferences and Power in the European Community: A Liberal Intergovernmentalist Approach”, Journal of Common Market Studies, 31(4), pp. 473-524.
- Moravcsik, A. (1998). The Choice for Europe: Social Purpose and State Power from Messina to Maastricht. Oxford: Routledge Publishing.
- Moravcsik, A. (2018). “Preferences, Power and Institutions in 21st-century Europe”, Journal of Common Market Studies, 56(7), pp. 1648-1674.
- Moravcsik, A. & Schimmelfennig, F. (2019). “Liberal Intergovernmentalism”. In Wiener, A., Borzel, T.A. & Risse, T. (eds.) European Integration Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 64-84.
- Olesen, M.R. (2020). “Denmark”. In Fagersten, B. (der.), The Nordic and the New European Security Architecture, Stocholm: The Swedish Institute of the International Affairs, s. 1-36.
- Owen, R. (2009). “Italy’s Foreign Minister Says Post Lisbon EU Needs a European Army”, The Times, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/italys-foreign-minister-says-post-lisbon-eu-needs-a-european-army-p2z7hxv5x85 (Accessed: 18 November 2024).
- Özdal, B. (2013). Avrupa Birliği Siyasi Bir Cüce, Askeri Bir Solucan mı? Ortak Dış Politika ve Güvenlik Politikası ile Ortak Güvenlik ve Savunma Politikası Oluşturma Süreçlerinin Tarihsel Gelişimi. Bursa: Dora Yayıncılık.
- Özdal, B. & Genç, M. (2004). Avrupa Güvenlik ve Savunma Politikası'nın Türkiye-AB İlişkilerine Etkileri. Bursa: Aktüel Yayınları.
- Pagani, F. (1998). “A New Gear in the CFSP Machinery: Integration of the Petersberg Tasks in the Treaty on European Union”, European Journal of International Law, 9, pp. 737- 749.
- Pirner, K. (2018). “Spain Seeks to Take on a Greater Role in EU Security & Defence Policy”, South EU Summit, https://southeusummit.com/europe/spain/spain-seeks-take-greater-role-eu-security-defence-policy/ (Accessed: 18 November 2024).
- Raidio Teilifis Eireann (2018). “European Army Proposal Goes Too Far–Dutch PM”,https://www.rte.ie/news/europe/2018/1116/1011481-eu-army/#main content (Accessed: 18 November 2024).
- Rohan, S. (2014). The Western Europe Union: International Politics between Alliance and Integration. New York: Routledge Publishing.
- Samuel, H. (2018). “Macron Wants Euro Army To Combat China, Russia and US”, The Sydney Morning Herald, 7 November. Available at: https://www.smh.com.au/world/europe/macron-wants-euro-army-to-combat-china-russia-and-us-20181107-p50ef7.html (Accessed: 28 May 2021).
- Schweizer, D. & Ondarza, N. (2007). “Three cylinders for a new integration engine? Preconditions and Challenges for a British-German-French Leadership Role in the ESDP”. Discussion Paper of FG1, 2007/20 SWP Berlin.
- Şirin, B. (2020). “Değişen Dünya Düzeninde Yeni Alman Dış Politikası”, Ankara Avrupa Çalışmaları Dergisi, 19(2), pp. 467-500.
- Tangör, B. (2010). Avrupa Birliği'nin Dış Güvenlik ve Savunma Politikaları: OGSP. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.
- Terlikowski (2021). “Return of the European Army Idea?”, The Polish Institute of International Affairs, https://pism.pl/publications/Return_of_the_European_Army_ Idea (Accessed: 20 November 2024).
- Tezcan, E. (1999). “Maastricht ve Amsterdam Antlaşmalan Çerçevesinde Avrupa Birliği ve Batı Avrupa Birliği İlişkileri”. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 54(1), pp. 143-158.
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