SODIUM REDUCTION IN FOODS

Abstract

Sodium is a mineral found naturally in foods and plays an important role in maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance in the body and regulating blood pressure. However, excessive sodium consumption causes many important ailments, especially hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. The main source of sodium in foods is sodium chloride, better known as table salt. Salt has a significant effect on the sensory, physical, chemical and microbiological properties of foods. Sodium reduction in foods is a multidimensional process that includes sensory quality, shelf life and functionality factors. Current approaches to reducing sodium in food products mainly include salt removal and gradual reduction of sodium in food formulations, replacement of sodium with salt substitutes, use of flavor enhancers, redesigning the food structure to optimize sodium release and transport, altering the physical form of salt, improving salt diffusion with new technologies and and odor-taste interaction strategies. In this review, general information about sodium is presented and strategies for sodium reduction in foods are discussed.

Keywords

• Sodium
• hypertension
• cardiovascular diseases
• salt
• function of salt in foods
• sodium reduction strategies

GIDALARDA SODYUM AZALTIMI

Abstract

Sodyum besinlerde doğal olarak bulunan bir mineral olup vücutta sıvı ve elektrolit dengesinin sağlanmasında ve kan basıncının düzenlenmesinde önemli rol oynamaktadır. Bununla birlikte, aşırı sodyum tüketimi, başta hipertansiyon ve kardiyovasküler hastalıklar olmak üzere pek çok önemli rahatsızlığa neden olmaktadır. Gıdalardaki başlıca sodyum kaynağı ise daha çok sofra tuzu olarak bilinen sodyum klorürdür. Tuz, gıdaların duyusal, fiziksel, kimyasal ve mikrobiyolojik özellikleri üzerinde oldukça önemli bir etkiye sahiptir. Gıdalarda sodyum azaltımı, duyusal kalite, raf ömrü ve işlevsellik faktörlerini içeren çok boyutlu bir işlemdir. Gıda ürünlerinde sodyumun azaltılmasına yönelik mevcut yaklaşımlar, esas olarak gıda formülasyonlarında tuzun kaldırılması ve kademeli sodyum azaltımı, sodyumun tuz ikameleri ile değiştirilmesi, lezzet arttırıcıların kullanımı, sodyum salınımını ve taşınmasını optimize etmek amacıyla gıda yapısının yeniden tasarlanması, tuzun fiziksel formunun değiştirilmesi, yeni teknolojilerle tuz difüzyonunun geliştirilmesi ve koku-tat interaksiyonları stratejilerini içermektedir. Bu derlemede, sodyum hakkında genel bilgi sunularak, gıdalarda sodyum azaltımına yönelik stratejiler ele alınmıştır.

Keywords

• sodyum
• hipertansiyon
• kardiovasküler hastalıklar
• tuz
• tuzun gıdalardaki işlevi
• sodyum azaltma stratejileri

References

1. Alarcon-Rojo, A. D., Janacua, H., Rodriguez, J. C., Paniwnyk, L., Mason, T. J. (2015). Power ultrasound in meat processing. Meat Sci, 107:86-93, doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.04.015.
2. Almli, V. L., Hersleth, M. (2013). Salt replacement and injection salting in smoked salmon evaluated from descriptive and hedonic sensory perspectives. Aquac Int, 21: 1091-1108, doi: 10.1007/s10499-012-9615-4.
3. Antúnez, L., Giménez, A., Vidal, L., & Ares, G. (2018). Partial replacement of NaCl with KCl in bread: Effect on sensory characteristics and consumer perception. J Sens Stud, 33: e12441, doi: 10.1111/joss.12441.
4. Arcand, J., Jefferson, K., Schermel, A., Shah, F., Trang, S., Kutlesa, D., ..., L’Abbe, M. R. (2016). Examination of food industry progress in reducing the sodium content of packaged foods in Canada: 2010 to 2013. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab, 41: 684-690, doi: 10.1139/apnm-2015-0617.
5. Bansal, V., Mishra, S. K. (2020). Reduced‐sodium cheeses: Implications of reducing sodium chloride on cheese quality and safety. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf, 19: 733-758, doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12524.
6. Baptista, D. P., da Silva Araújo, F. D., Eberlin, M. N., Gigante, M. L. (2017). Reduction of 25% salt in Prato cheese does not affect proteolysis and sensory acceptance. Int Dairy J, 75:101-110, doi: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2017.08.001.
7. Bassett, M. N., Pérez‐Palacios, T., Cipriano, I., Cardoso, P., Ferreira, I. M., Samman, N., Pinho, O. (2014). Development of bread with NaCl reduction and calcium fortification: study of its quality characteristics. J Food Qual, 37: 107-116, doi: 10.1111/jfq.12079.
8. Berton-Carabin, C. C., Sagis, L., Schroën, K. (2018). Formation, structure, and functionality of interfacial layers in food emulsions. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol, 9: 551-587, doi: 10.1146/annurev-food-030117-012405.

9. Bhat, Z. F., Morton, J. D., Mason, S. L., Bekhit, A. E. D. A. (2019). Current and future prospects for the use of pulsed electric field in the meat industry. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 59: 1660-1674, doi: 10.1080/10408398.2018.1425825.
10. Bolhuis, D. P., Temme, E. H., Koeman, F. T., Noort, M. W., Kremer, S., Janssen, A. M. (2011). A salt reduction of 50% in bread does not decrease bread consumption or increase sodium intake by the choice of sandwich fillings. J Nutr, 141: 2249-2255, doi: 10.3945/jn.111.141366.
11. Braschi, A., Gill, L., Naismith, D. J. (2009). Partial substitution of sodium with potassium in white bread: feasibility and bioavailability. Int J Food Sci Nutr, 60: 507-521, doi: 10.1080/09637480701782118.
12. Brinsden, H. C., He, F. J., Jenner, K. H., MacGregor, G. A. (2013). Surveys of the salt content in UK bread: progress made and further reductions possible. BMJ open, 3(6). doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-002936.
13. Cappuccio, F. P., Beer, M., Strazzullo, P. (2019). Population dietary salt reduction and the risk of cardiovascular disease. A scientific statement from the European Salt Action Network. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis, 29: 107-114, doi: 10.1016/j.numecd.2018.11.010.
14. Carvalho, C. B., Madrona, G. S., Corradine, S. D. S., Reche, P. M., Pozza, M. S. D. S., Prado, I. N. D. (2013). Evaluation of quality factors of bovine and chicken meat marinated with reduced sodium content. Food Sci Technol, 33: 776-783, doi: 10.1590/S0101-20612013000400025 .
15. Cerrato Rodriguez, W. A., Torrico, D. D., Osorio, L. F., Cardona, J., Prinyawiwatkul, W. (2017). Taste perception and purchase intent of oil‐in‐water spreads: effects of oil types and salt (NaCl or KCl) concentrations. Int J Food Sci Technol, 52: 2138-2147, doi: 10.1111/ijfs.13492.
16. Charlton, K. E., Macgregor, E., Vorster, N. H., Levitt, N. S., Steyn, K. (2007). Partial replacement of NaCl can be achieved with potassium, magnesium and calcium salts in brown bread. Int J Food Sci Nutr, 58: 508-521, doi: 10.1080/09637480701331148.
17. Chavhan, G. B., Kanawjia, S. K., Khetra, Y., Puri, R. (2015). Effect of potassium-based emulsifying salts on sensory, textural, and functional attributes of low-sodium processed Mozzarella cheese. Daıry Scı Technol, 95: 265-278, doi:10.1007/s13594-014-0207-0.
18. Chindapan, N., Niamnuy, C., & Devahastin, S. (2018). Physical properties, morphology and saltiness of salt particles as affected by spray drying conditions and potassium chloride substitution. Powder Technol, 326: 265-271, doi: 10.1016/j.powtec.2017.12.014.
19. Corral, S., Salvador, A., Belloch, C., Flores, M. (2014). Effect of fat and salt reduction on the sensory quality of slow fermented sausages inoculated with Debaryomyces hansenii yeast. Food Control, 45: 1-7, doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.04.013.
20. Costa, R. G. B., Alves, R. C., da Cruz, A. G., Sobral, D., Teodoro, V. A. M., Junior, L. C. G. C., ..., Miguel, E. M. (2018). Manufacture of reduced-sodium Coalho cheese by partial replacement of NaCl with KCl. Int Dairy J, 87: 37-43, doi: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2018.07.012.
21. Costa, R. G. B., Junior, A. C., da Cruz, A. G., Sobral, D., Júnior, L. C. G. C., de Paula, J. C. J., ..., Teodoro, V. A. M. (2019). Effect of partial replacement of sodium chloride with potassium chloride on the characteristics of Minas Padrão cheese. Int Dairy J, 91: 48-54, doi: 10. 1016/j.idairyj.2018.12.002.
22. Czarnacka-Szymani, J., Jezewska-Zychowicz, M. (2015). Impact of nutritional information on consumers' acceptance of cheese with reduced sodium chloride content. Int Dairy J, 40: 47-53, doi: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2014.08.017.
23. da Silva Araujo, D. H., de Souza Rodrigues, R. T., da Costa, M. M., de Miranda, J. O., de Lira-Alencar, N. R. C., Queiroz, M. A. Á., ..., Gois, G. C. (2021). Reduction of sodium content in frozen goat sausage using different types of salt. LWT, 135: 110272, doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110272.
24. de Souza Paglarini, C., Vidal, V. A., Ribeiro, W., Badan Ribeiro, A. P., Bernardinelli, O. D., Herrero, A. M., ..., Rodrigues Pollonio, M. A. (2021). Using inulin‐based emulsion gels as fat substitute in salt reduced Bologna sausage. J Sci Food Agric, 101: 505-517, doi: 10.1002/jsfa.10659.
25. Diaz-Bustamante, M. L., Reyes, L. H., Solano, O. A. A. (2020). Application of a Multiscale Approach in the Substitution and Reduction of NaCl in Costeño-Type Artisan Cheese. Appl Sci, 10: 9008, doi: 10.3390/app10249008.
26. Diler, G., Le-Bail, A., & Chevallier, S. (2016). Salt reduction in sheeted dough: A successful technological approach. Food Res Int, 88: 10-15, doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2016.03.013.
27. Dziki, D., Cacak-Pietrzak, G., Hassoon, W. H., Gawlik-Dziki, U., Sułek, A., Różyło, R., Sugier, D. (2021). The fruits of sumac (Rhus coriaria L.) as a functional additive and salt replacement to wheat bread. LWT, 136: 110346, doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110346.
28. Emorine, M., Septier, C., Thomas‐Danguin, T., Salles, C. (2014). Ham particle size influences saltiness perception in flans. J. Food Sci, 79: 693-696, doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.12399.
29. Erol, N. D., Erdem, Ö. A., Cakli, S., Yavuz, A. B. (2021). Influence of partial sodium replacement on proximate composition, physical and sensory quality of marinated anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus). LWT, 137: 110476, doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110476.
30. Forouzanfar, M. H., Liu, P., Roth, G. A., Ng, M., Biryukov, S., Marczak, L., ..., Murray, C. J. (2017). Global burden of hypertension and systolic blood pressure of at least 110 to 115 mm Hg, 1990-2015. Jama, 317: 165-182, doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.19043.
31. Freire, T. V. M., Freire, D. O., de Souza, V. R., Gonçalves, C. S., Carneiro, J. D. D. S., Nunes, C. A., Pinheiro, A. C. M. (2015). Salting potency and time‐intensity profile of microparticulated sodium chloride in shoestring potatoes. J Sens Stud, 30: 1-9, doi: 10.1111/joss.12129.
32. Galvão, M. T. E. L., Moura, D. B., Barretto, A. C. S., Pollonio, M. A. R. (2014). Effects of micronized sodium chloride on the sensory profile and consumer acceptance of turkey ham with reduced sodium content. Food Sci Technol, 34: 189-194, doi: 10.1590/S0101-20612014005000009.
33. Garfinkle, M. A. (2017). Salt and essential hypertension: pathophysiology and implications for treatment. J Am Soc Hypertens, 11: 385-391, doi: 10.1016/j.jash.2017.04.006.
34. Georges, C., Daroub, H., Toufeili, I., Isma’eel, H., & Olabi, A. (2018). Dough mixing properties and white pita bread sensory characteristics as affected by salt reduction. Int J Food Prop, 21: 2578-2589, doi: 10.1080/10942912.2018.1540987.
35. Goh, S. M., Leroux, B., Groeneschild, C. A. G., Busch, J. L. H. C. (2010). On the effect of tastant excluded fillers on sweetness and saltiness of a model food. J Food Sci, 75: 245-249, doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01597.x.
36. Gomes, A. P., Cruz, A. G., Cadena, R. S., Celeghini, R. M. S., Faria, J. A. F., Bolini, H. M. A., ..., Granato, D. (2011). Manufacture of low-sodium Minas fresh cheese: Effect of the partial replacement of sodium chloride with potassium chloride. Int J Dairy Sci, 94: 2701-2706, doi: 10.3168/jds.2010-3774.
37. Graudal, N. A., Hubeck-Graudal, T., Jürgens, G. (2016). Reduced dietary sodium intake increases heart rate. A meta-analysis of 63 randomized controlled trials including 72 study populations. Front. Physiol, 7:111, doi: 10.3389/ fphys.2016.00111.
38. Grummer, J., Bobowski, N., Karalus, M., Vickers, Z., Schoenfuss, T. (2013). Use of potassium chloride and flavor enhancers in low sodium Cheddar cheese. Int J Dairy Sci, 96: 1401-1418, doi: 10.3168/jds.2012-6057.
39. He, F. J. (2019) Salt and health. In: Reducing Salt in Foods, Beeren, C. (chief ed.), 2nd Edition, Woodhead Publishing, Duxford, the UK, pp. 3-44. ISBN: 978-0-08-100933-8.
40. Health Canada (2018). Sodium reduction in processed foods in Canada: An evaluation of progress toward voluntary targets from 2012 to 2016. Retrieved from https://www. canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/legislation-guidelines/ guidance documents/guidance-food-industry-reducing-sodium-processed-foodsprogress- report-2017.html.
41. Hoppu, U., Hopia, A., Pohjanheimo, T., Rotola-Pukkila, M., Mäkinen, S., Pihlanto, A., Sandell, M. (2017). Effect of salt reduction on consumer acceptance and sensory quality of food. Foods, 6: 103, doi: 10.3390/foods6120103.
42. Hu, Y., Zhang, L., Zhang, H., Wang, Y., Chen, Q., Kong, B. (2020). Physicochemical properties and flavour profile of fermented dry sausages with a reduction of sodium chloride. LWT, 124: 109061, doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109061.
43. Ilgaz, Ş., & Yarangümeli, K. (2019). Gıda ve içecek sektörü için protokol uygulama ve tuz azaltma rehberi. Türkiye gıda ve içecek sanayii dernekler federasyonu.
44. Inguglia, E. S., Zhang, Z., Tiwari, B. K., Kerry, J. P., Burgess, C. M. (2017). Salt reduction strategies in processed meat products–A review. Trends Food Sci Technol, 59: 70-78, doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2016.10.016.
45. Israr, T., Rakha, A., Sohail, M., Rashid, S., Shehzad, A. (2016). Salt reduction in baked products: Strategies and constraints. Trends Food Sci Technol, 51: 98-105. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2016.03.002.
46. Jaenke, R., Barzi, F., McMahon, E., Webster, J., Brimblecombe, J. (2017). Consumer acceptance of reformulated food products: A systematic review and meta-analysis of salt-reduced foods. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 57: 3357-3372, doi: 10.1080/10408398.2015.1118009.
47. Kamleh, R., Olabi, A., Toufeili, I., Najm, N. E. O., Younis, T., Ajib, R. (2012). The effect of substitution of sodium chloride with potassium chloride on the physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory properties of Halloumi cheese. Int J Dairy Sci, 95: 1140-1151, doi: 10.3168/jds.2011-4878.
48. Karimi, R., Mortazavian, A. M., Karami, M. (2012). Incorporation of Lactobacillus casei in Iranian ultrafiltered Feta cheese made by partial replacement of NaCl with KCl. Int J Dairy Sci, 95: 4209-4222, doi:10.3168/jds.2011-4872.
49. Khetra, Y., Kanawjia, S. K., Puri, R. (2016). Selection and optimization of salt replacer, flavour enhancer and bitter blocker for manufacturing low sodium Cheddar cheese using response surface methodology. LWT, 72: 99-106, doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2016.04.035.
50. Kloss, L., Meyer, J. D., Graeve, L., Vetter, W. (2015). Sodium intake and its reduction by food reformulation in the European Union—A review. NFS journal, 1: 9-19, doi: 10.1016/j.nfs.2015.03.001.
51. Kremer, S., Shimojo, R., Holthuysen, N., Köster, E. P., Mojet, J. (2013). Consumer acceptance of salt-reduced “soy sauce” foods over rapidly repeated exposure. Food Qual Prefer, 27: 179-190, doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2012.06.002.
52. La Croix, K. W., Fiala, S. C., Colonna, A. E., Durham, C. A., Morrissey, M. T., Drum, D. K., Kohn, M. A. (2015). Consumer detection and acceptability of reduced-sodium bread. Public Health Nutr, 18: 1412-1418, doi: 10.1017/S1368980014001748.
53. Li, Y., Han, K., Wan, Z., Yang, X. (2020). Salt reduction in semi-solid food gel via inhomogeneous distribution of sodium-containing coacervate: Effect of gum arabic. Food Hydrocoll, 109: 106102, doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.106102.
54. Lima, A., Dufauret, M., le Révérend, B., Wooster, T. J. (2018). Deconstructing how the various components of emulsion creamers impact salt perception. Food Hydrocoll, 79: 310-318, doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.01.005.
55. Linscott, T. D., Lim, J. (2016). Retronasal odor enhancement by salty and umami tastes. Food Qual Prefer, 48: 1-10, doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2015.08.004.
56. Lučan, M., Ranilović, J., Slačanac, V., Cvetković, T., Primorac, L., Gajari, D., ..., Čačić, J. L. (2020). Physico-chemical properties, spreadability and consumer acceptance of low-sodium cream cheese. Mljekarstvo/Dairy, 70 , doi: 10.15567/mljekarstvo.2020.0101.
57. Lynch, E. J., Dal Bello, F., Sheehan, E. M., Cashman, K. D., Arendt, E. K. (2009). Fundamental studies on the reduction of salt on dough and bread characteristics. Food Res. Int, 42: 885-891, doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2009.03.014.
58. McGough, M. M., Sato, T., Rankin, S. A., Sindelar, J. J. (2012). Reducing sodium levels in frankfurters using naturally brewed soy sauce. Meat Sci, 91: 69-78, doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2011.12.008.
59. Mente, A., O'Donnell, M., Rangarajan, S., McQueen, M., Dagenais, G., Wielgosz, A., ..., Yusuf, S. (2018). Urinary sodium excretion, blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, and mortality: a community-level prospective epidemiological cohort study. The Lancet, 392: 496-506, doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31376-X.
60. Miller, R. A., Jeong, J. (2014). Sodium reduction in bread using low‐sodium sea salt. Cereal Chem, 91: 41-44, doi: 10.1094/CCHEM-05-13-0089-R.
61. Mitchell, H. L. (2019) Strategies and implications for salt reduction in food products. In: Reducing Salt in Foods, Beeren, C. (chief ed.), 2nd Edition, Woodhead Publishing, Duxford, the UK, pp. 113-128. ISBN: 978-0-08-100933-8.
62. Moncada, M., Astete, C., Sabliov, C., Olson, D., Boeneke, C., & Aryana, K. J. (2015). Nano spray-dried sodium chloride and its effects on the microbiological and sensory characteristics of surface-salted cheese crackers. Int J Dairy Sci, 98: 5946-5954, doi: 10.3168/jds.2015-9658.
63. Mozuraityte, R., Berget, I., Mahdalova, M., Grønsberg, A., Øye, E. R., Greiff, K. (2019). Sodium reduction in processed cheese spreads and the effect on physicochemical properties. Int. Dairy J, 90: 45-55, doi: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2018.10.008.
64. Mueller, E., Koehler, P., Scherf, K. A. (2016). Applicability of salt reduction strategies in pizza crust. Food Chem, 192: 1116-1123, doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.07.066.
65. Muñoz, I., Guàrdia, M. D., Arnau, J., Dalgaard, P., Bover, S., Fernandes, J. O., ..., Oliveira, H. (2020). Effect of the sodium reduction and smoking system on quality and safety of smoked salmon (Salmo salar). Food Chem Toxicol, 143: 111554, doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111554.
66. Nielsen, T., Mihnea, M., Båth, K., Cunha, S. C., Fereira, R., Fernandes, J. O., ..., Oliveira, H. (2020). New formulation for producing salmon pâté with reduced sodium content. Food Chem. Toxicol, 143: 111546, doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111546.
67. Niimi, J., Overington, A. R., Silcock, P., Bremer, P. J., Delahunty, C. M. (2016). Cross-modal taste and aroma interactions: Cheese flavour perception and changes in flavour character in multicomponent mixtures. Food Qual Prefer, 48: 70-80, doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2015.08.011.
68. Noort, M. W., Bult, J. H., Stieger, M. (2012). Saltiness enhancement by taste contrast in bread prepared with encapsulated salt. J. Cereal Sci, 55: 218-225, doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2011.11.012.
69. Noort, M. W., Bult, J. H., Stieger, M., Hamer, R. J. (2010). Saltiness enhancement in bread by inhomogeneous spatial distribution of sodium chloride. J Cereal Sci, 52: 378-386, doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2010.06.018.
70. Nuwanthi, S. G. L. I., Madage, S. S. K., Hewajulige, I. G. N., & Wijesekera, R. G. S. (2016). Comparative study on organoleptic, microbiological and chemical qualities of dried fish, Goldstripe Sardinella (Sardinella gibbosa) with low salt levels and spices. Procedia Food Sci, 6: 356-361, doi: 10.1016/j.profoo.2016.02.072.
71. O'Sullivan, M. (2020). Salt, Fat and Sugar Reduction: Sensory Approaches for Nutritional Reformulation of Foods and Beverages. Woodhead Publishing the UK, pp. 346. ISBN: 978-0-12-822612-4 .
72. Pedro, S., Nunes, M.L., 2019. Reducing salt in seafood products. In: Beeren, C., Groves, K., Titoria, P.M. (Eds.), Reducing Salt in Foods. Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge, pp. 185–211.
73. Petit, G., Jury, V., de Lamballerie, M., Duranton, F., Pottier, L., Martin, J. L. (2019). Salt intake from processed meat products: Benefits, risks and evolving practices. Compr RevFood Sci Food Saf, 18:1453-1473, doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12478.
74. Pflaum, T., Konitzer, K., Hofmann, T., Koehler, P. (2013). Influence of texture on the perception of saltiness in wheat bread. J Agric Food Chem, 61: 10649-10658, doi: 10.1021/jf403304y.
75. Pietrasik, Z., Gaudette, N. J. (2014). The impact of salt replacers and flavor enhancer on the processing characteristics and consumer acceptance of restructured cooked hams. Meat Sci, 96: 1165-1170, doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.11.005.
76. Pires, M. A., Munekata, P. E. S., Baldin, J. C., Rocha, Y. J. P., Carvalho, L. T., dos Santos, I. R., ..., Trindade, M. A. (2017). The effect of sodium reduction on the microstructure, texture and sensory acceptance of Bologna sausage. Food Struct, 14: 1-7, doi: 10.1016/j.foostr.2017.05.002.
77. Purdy,J. (2019) Dietary salt: Consumption, reduction strategies and consumer awareness. In: Reducing Salt in Foods, Beeren, C. (chief ed.), 2nd Edition, Woodhead Publishing, Duxford, the UK, pp. 71-96. ISBN: 978-0-08-100933-8.
78. Quilaqueo, M., Aguilera, J. M. (2015). Dissolution of NaCl crystals in artificial saliva and water by video-microscopy. Food Res Int, 69: 373-380, doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2015.01.020.
79. Quilaqueo, M., Duizer, L., Aguilera, J. M. (2015). The morphology of salt crystals affects the perception of saltiness. Food Res Int, 76: 675-681, doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2015.07.004.
80. Raybaudi-Massilia, R., Mosqueda-Melgar, J., Rosales-Oballos, Y., de Petricone, R. C., Frágenas, N. N., Zambrano-Durán, A., ... Urbina, G. (2019). New alternative to reduce sodium chloride in meat products: Sensory and microbiological evaluation. LWT, 108: 253-260, doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2019.03.057.
81. Reißner, A. M., Wendt, J., Zahn, S., Rohm, H. (2019). Sodium-chloride reduction by substitution with potassium, calcium and magnesium salts in wheat bread. LWT, 108: 153-159, doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2019.03.069.
82. Rios-Mera, J. D., Saldaña, E., Cruzado-Bravo, M. L., Patinho, I., Selani, M. M., Valentin, D., Contreras-Castillo, C. J. (2019). Reducing the sodium content without modifying the quality of beef burgers by adding micronized salt. Food Res Int, 121: 288-295, doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2019.03.044.
83. Rizo, A., Fuentes, A., Fernández-Segovia, I., Barat, J. M. (2017). Development of a novel smoke-flavoured trout product: An approach to sodium reduction and shelf life assessment. J. Food Eng, 211: 22-29, doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.04.031.
84. Rodrigues, D. M., de Souza, V. R., Mendes, J. F., Nunes, C. A., Pinheiro, A. C. M. (2016). Microparticulated salts mix: An alternative to reducing sodium in shoestring potatoes. LWT, 69: 390-399, doi: 10.1016/ j.lwt.2016.01.056.
85. Rodrigues, J. F., Gonçalves, C. S., Pereira, R. C., Carneiro, J. D. S., Pinheiro, A. C. M. (2014). Utilization of temporal dominance of sensations and time intensity methodology for development of low-sodium Mozzarella cheese using a mixture of salts. Int J Dairy Sci, 97: 4733-4744, doi: 10.3168/jds.2014-7913.
86. Samapundo, S., Deschuyffeleer, N., Van Laere, D., De Leyn, I., Devlieghere, F. (2010). Effect of NaCl reduction and replacement on the growth of fungi important to the spoilage of bread. Food Microbiol, 27: 749-756, doi:10.1016/j.fm.2010.03.009.
87. Sharif, K., Amital, H., Shoenfeld, Y. (2018). The role of dietary sodium in autoimmune diseases: The salty truth. Autoimmun. Rev, 17: 1069-1073, doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2018.05.007.
88. Silow, C., Axel, C., Zannini, E., Arendt, E. K. (2016). Current status of salt reduction in bread and bakery products–a review. J Cereal Sci, 72: 135-145, doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2016.10.010.
89. Silow, C., Axel, C., Zannini, E., Arendt, E. K. (2018). Application of sourdough in the production of fat-and salt-reduced puff pastry. Eur Food Res. Technol, 244: 1581-1593, doi: 10.1007/s00217-018-3071-y.
90. Sun, C., Zhou, X., Hu, Z., Lu, W., Zhao, Y., Fang, Y. (2020). Food and salt structure design for salt reducing. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol, 102570, doi: 10.1016/j.ifset.2020.102570.
91. Syarifuddin, A., Septier, C., Salles, C., Thomas-Danguin, T. (2016). Reducing salt and fat while maintaining taste: An approach on a model food system. Food Qual Prefer, 48: 59-69.
92. Tamm, A., Bolumar, T., Bajovic, B., Toepfl, S. (2016). Salt (NaCl) reduction in cooked ham by a combined approach of high pressure treatment and the salt replacer KCl. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol, 36: 294-302, doi: 10.1016/j.ifset.2016.07.010.
93. Thomas-Danguin, T., Guichard, E., Salles, C. (2019). Cross-modal interactions as a strategy to enhance salty taste and to maintain liking of low-salt food: a review. Food Funct, 10: 5269-5281, doi: 10.1039/C8FO02006J.
94. Vasques, C., Mendes, M. P., Silva, D. M., Monteiro, A. R. G. (2020). Reduction in sodium chloride content in saltine crackers through an edible coating. Czech J Food Sci, 38: 237-241, doi: 10.17221/221/2019-CJFS.
95. Vinitha, K., Leena, M. M., Moses, J. A., Anandharamakrishnan, C. (2021). Size-dependent enhancement in salt perception: Spraying approaches to reduce sodium content in foods. Powder Technol, 378: 237-245, doi: 10.1016/j.powtec.2020.09.079.
96. Wang, G., Yeung, C. K., Wong, W. Y., Zhang, N., Wei, Y. F., Zhang, J. L., ..., Yang, X. (2016). Liver fibrosis can be induced by high salt intake through excess reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. J Agric Food Chem, 64: 1610-1617, doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b05897.
97. Wilck, N., Matus, M. G., Kearney, S. M., Olesen, S. W., Forslund, K., Bartolomaeus, H., ..., Müller, D. N. (2017). Salt-responsive gut commensal modulates TH 17 axis and disease. Nature, 551: 585-589, doi: 10.1038/ nature24628.
98. World Health Organization (WHO). (2017). Healthy diet. Fact sheet number 394. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/whodocuments-detail/healthy-diet-factsheet394 (Accessed: 10 April 2020).
99. World Health Organization. (2013). Mapping salt reduction initiatives in the WHO European Region. WHO Regional Office for Europe: Copenhagen, Denmark. http://www.euro.who. int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/186462/Mapping-salt-reduction-initiatives-inthe- WHO-(Accessed: 10 May 2014.)
100. World Health Organization. (2016). The SHAKE technical package for salt reduction. http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/shake-salthabit/en/.
101. Xue, Y., Wen, Q., Xu, C., Zhang, X., Zeng, J., Sha, A. M., ..., Zeng, C. (2020). Elevated Salt Taste Threshold Is Associated with Increased Risk of Coronary Heart Disease. J. Cardiovasc Transl Res, 1-8, doi: 10.1007/s12265-020-10017-4.