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Year 2025, Volume: 7 Issue: 15, 711 - 728, 29.09.2025

Necmettin Ayan

https://doi.org/10.53718/gttad.1768354

Abstract

References

  • ABELS, Richard Alfred, The Great War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England, Routledge, New York 1998.
  • ABULAFIA, David, The Two Italies: Economic Relations Between the Norman Kingdom of Sicily and the Northern Communes, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1977.
  • ABULAFIA, David, The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean, Oxford University Press, New York 2011.
  • ANGOLD, Michael, “Belle Époque or Crisis? (1025-1118), The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c. 500-1492, Ed. Jonathan Shepard, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2008, pp. 583-626.
  • BACHRACH, Bernard S., Merovingian Military Organization, 481-751, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis 1972.
  • BARRACLOUGH, Geoffrey, Origins of Modern Germany, Blackwell, Oxford 1946.
  • BARTLETT, Robert, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950-1350, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1993.
  • BATES, David, William the Conqueror, Yale University Press, New Haven 2016.
  • BECKER, Brian N., “Europe, 100 to 1500 CE”, The Sea in History: The Medieval World / La mer dans l’histoire: Le Moyen Âge, Ed. Michele Balard, Christian Buchet, V. II, Boydell & Brewer Press, Woodbridge 2017, pp. 227-233.
  • BLOOM, Robert L.; Basil L. Crapster; Harold A. Dunkelberger, “7. The Two Swords in Theory and Practice. Pt. III: The Medieval Church." Ideas and Institutions of Western Man, Gettysburg College 1958, pp. 65-72.
  • BOUCHARD, Constance Brittain, “Burgundy and Provence, 879-1032”, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. III, c.900-c.1024, Ed. Timothy Reuter, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1999, pp. 328-345.
  • BOSWELL, A. Bruce, “The Kipchak Turks”, The Slavonic Review, Vol. 6/16, 1927, pp. 68-85.
  • BOSWORTH, C. E., “The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000-1217),” The Cambridge History of Iran, Ed. J. A. Boyle, V. 5, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1968, pp. 1-202.
  • BROWN, Peter, The World of Late Antiquity: From Marcus Aurelius to Muhammad, Thames and Hudson, London 1979.
  • BURY, John Bagnall, History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I. to The Deathe of Justinia (A.D. 395 to A. D. 565), Macmillian and Co. Limited, London 1923.
  • CAHEN, Claude, Pre-Ottoman Turkey, Taplinger Publishing, New York 1968.
  • CAHEN, Claude, The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rūm, Longman, London 2001.
  • CHIBNALL, Marjorie, Anglo-Norman England, 1066-1166, Blackwell, Oxford 1986.
  • COHEN, Samuel, “The Evolution of a Disaster: Gregory I, the Rhetoric of Suffering, and Lombard “Sieges” of Rome, 592-593”, Studies in Late Antiquity, V. 8/1, 2024, pp. 36-64.
  • COLLINS, Roger, Medieval Spain Unity in Diversity, 400-1000, Macmillan, London 1983.
  • COLLINS, Roger, The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797, Blackwell, Oxford 1989.
  • COLLINS, Roger, Visigothic Spain 409-711, Blackwell, Oxford 2004.
  • CONSTABLE, Giles, The Reformation of the Twelfth Century, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1996.
  • CONSTABLE, Giles, “Cluny and the First Crusade”, Le concile de Clermont de 1095 et l’appel à la croisade. Actes du Colloque universitaire international de Clermont-Ferrand (23-25 juin 1995) organisé et publié avec le concours du Conseil régional d’Auvergne, Collection de l’Ecole française de Rome, V. 5, Rome 1997, pp. 179-193.
  • COSTAMBEYS, Marios; Innes, Matthew; MacLean, Simon, The Carolingian World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2011.
  • CURTIS, Edmun, Roger of Sicily and the Normans in Lower Italy, 1016-1154, G.P. Putnam’s Sons, New York and London 1912.
  • DELOGU, Paolo, “Lombard and Carolingian Italy”, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Ed. Rosamond McKitterick, Vol. II c. 700 - c.900, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995, pp. 290-319.
  • DOWNHAM, Clare, “Vikings in England”, The Viking World, eds., Stefan Brink and Neil Price, Routledge, London 2008, pp. 341-349.
  • DURMAZ, Sayime, “Yüksek Ortaçağ’da Papa-İmparator Çatışması: Kılıç ile Âsâ’nın Savaşı”, Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, V. I/1, 2010, pp. 93-120.
  • DVORNIK, Francis, The Photian Schism: History and Legend, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1948.
  • EIDELBERG, P. G., “The coronation of Pepin as a turning point in West European history”, Kleio, V. 15/1-2, 1983, pp. 45-51.
  • ENGEL, Pál, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526, I.B. Tauris, London 2001.
  • ERDMANN, Carl, The Origin of the Idea of Crusade, trans. Marshall W. Baldwin and Walter Goffart, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1977.
  • FOURACRE, Paul, “Frankish Gaul to 814”, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Ed. Rosamond McKitterick, Vol. II c. 700 - c.900, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995, pp. 85-109.
  • FRASSETTO, Michael, Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe: Society in Transformation. Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2003.
  • GEARY, Patrick, J., Before France and Germany: The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World, OUP, Oxford 1988.
  • GREGORY BISHOP OF TOURS, The History of the Franks, trans. Ernest Brehaut, W. W. Norton & Company, New York 1969.
  • GOFFART, Walter, “Rome, Constantinople, and the Barbarians”, The American Historical Review, Vol. 86, No. 2 1981, pp. 275-306.
  • GOFFART, Walter, Barbarian Tides: The Migration Age and the Later Roman Empire, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 2006.
  • HALDON, John, Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, UCL Press, London 1999.
  • HALDON, John, Byzantium at War AD 600-1453, Routledge, Oxford 2003.
  • HARRIS, Jonathan, Byzantium and the Crusades, Bloomsbury, London 2014.
  • HAYWOOD, John, The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings, Penguin, London 1995.
  • HEATHER, Peter, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, Oxford University Press, USA 2005.
  • HEATHER, Peter, Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the birth of Europe, Oxford University Press, New York 2009.
  • HEYDEMANN, Gerda, “The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions”, A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, Ed. Jonathan Arnold; Shane Bjornlie; Kristina Sessa, Brill Academic Publishers, Leiden 2016, p. 17-46.
  • HILLENBRAND, Carole,Turkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2007.
  • HUSSEY, Joan M., The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1986.
  • KARACA, Sevtap, Gölgesiz, “I. Haçlı Seferi (1096) Öncesinde Bizans İmparatorluğu’nun Siyasî Durumuna Bakış”, Trakya Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, V. 2/4, 2012, pp. 141-153.
  • KENNEDY, Hugh, Muslim Spain and Portugal, Routledge, New York 2014.
  • KREUTZ, Barbara M., Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1991.
  • LANKILA, Tommi P., “The Saracen Raid of Rome in 846: An Example of Maritime Ghazw”, Travelling through Time: Essays in honour of Kaj Öhrnberg, eds. Sylvia Akar; Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila; Inka Nokso-Koivisto,. Studia Orientalia. Vol. 114, 2013, pp. 93-120.
  • LEV, Yaacov, State and Society in Fatimid Egypt, Brill, Leiden 1991.
  • LEVINE, J. M., “Reginald Pecock and Lorenzo Valla on the Donation of Constantine”, Studies in the Renaissance, V. XX, 1973, pp. 118-143.
  • MCKITTERICK, Rosamond, Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity, Cambirdge University Press, Cambridge 2008.
  • MCQUEEN, W. B., “Relations between the Normans and Byzantium 1071-1111”, Byzantion, V. 56, 1986, pp. 427-476.
  • METCALFE, Alex, The Muslims of Medieval Italy, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2009.
  • MILES, George C., “Byzantium and the Arabs: Relations in Crete and the Aegean Area”, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 18, 1964, pp. 1-32.
  • NEF, Annliese, “Reinterpreting the Aghlabids’ Sicilian Policy (827-910)”, The Aghlabids and their Neighbours, Ed. Glaire D. Anderson Corisande Fenwick Mariam Rosser-Owen, Brill, Leiden 2017, pp. 76-87.
  • NOBLE, Thomas, F. X., The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1984.
  • PEACOCK, Andrew C. S., The Great Seljuk Empire, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2015.
  • PRYOR, John, Geography, Techonology, and War: Studies in the maritime history of the Mediterranean, 649-1571, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1988.
  • Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources, Ed. William Stearns Davis, Vol. II, Allyn and Bacon, Boston 1912-1913.
  • REUTER, Timoty, Germany in the Early Middle Ages, c. 800-1056, Longman, London 1991.
  • RICHARDS, Jeffrey, The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476-752, Routledge, London 1979.
  • ROSENWEIN, Barbara H., Rhinoceros Bound: Cluny in the Tenth Century,: University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1982.
  • SARRIS, Peter, “The Eastern Roman Empire From Constantine to Heraclius (306-641)”, The Oxford History of Byzantium, Ed. Cyril Mango, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2002, pp. 19-70.
  • SARRIS, Peter, Empires of Faith: The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, 500-700, Oxford University Press, UK 2011.
  • SAWYER, Peter, The Age of the Vikings, Edward Arnold, London 1971.
  • TABACCO, Giovanni, The Struggle for Power in Medieval Italy: Structures of Political Rule, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1989.
  • TREADGOLD, Warren, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press, Stanford 1997.
  • ULLMANN, Walter, A Short History of the Papacy in the Middle Ages, Routledge, London 2003.
  • WALKER, Paul E., Exploring an Islamic Empire: Fatimid History and its Sources, I.B. Tauris, London 2002.
  • WICKHAM, Chris, Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society, 400-1000, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor 1981.
  • WILLIAMS, Gareth, “Raiding and Warefare”, The Viking World, eds., Stefan Brink and Neil Price, Routledge, London 2008, pp. 193-203.
  • WOOD, Ian, The Merovingian Kingdoms, 450-751, Longman, London 1994.
  • YORKE, Barbara, Kings and kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England, Routledge, London 1990.
  • https://sourcebooks.web.fordham.edu/source/urban2-5vers.asp Access time: 13.5.2025

Year 2025, Volume: 7 Issue: 15, 711 - 728, 29.09.2025

Necmettin Ayan

https://doi.org/10.53718/gttad.1768354

Abstract

References

  • ABELS, Richard Alfred, The Great War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England, Routledge, New York 1998.
  • ABULAFIA, David, The Two Italies: Economic Relations Between the Norman Kingdom of Sicily and the Northern Communes, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1977.
  • ABULAFIA, David, The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean, Oxford University Press, New York 2011.
  • ANGOLD, Michael, “Belle Époque or Crisis? (1025-1118), The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c. 500-1492, Ed. Jonathan Shepard, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2008, pp. 583-626.
  • BACHRACH, Bernard S., Merovingian Military Organization, 481-751, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis 1972.
  • BARRACLOUGH, Geoffrey, Origins of Modern Germany, Blackwell, Oxford 1946.
  • BARTLETT, Robert, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950-1350, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1993.
  • BATES, David, William the Conqueror, Yale University Press, New Haven 2016.
  • BECKER, Brian N., “Europe, 100 to 1500 CE”, The Sea in History: The Medieval World / La mer dans l’histoire: Le Moyen Âge, Ed. Michele Balard, Christian Buchet, V. II, Boydell & Brewer Press, Woodbridge 2017, pp. 227-233.
  • BLOOM, Robert L.; Basil L. Crapster; Harold A. Dunkelberger, “7. The Two Swords in Theory and Practice. Pt. III: The Medieval Church." Ideas and Institutions of Western Man, Gettysburg College 1958, pp. 65-72.
  • BOUCHARD, Constance Brittain, “Burgundy and Provence, 879-1032”, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. III, c.900-c.1024, Ed. Timothy Reuter, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1999, pp. 328-345.
  • BOSWELL, A. Bruce, “The Kipchak Turks”, The Slavonic Review, Vol. 6/16, 1927, pp. 68-85.
  • BOSWORTH, C. E., “The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000-1217),” The Cambridge History of Iran, Ed. J. A. Boyle, V. 5, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1968, pp. 1-202.
  • BROWN, Peter, The World of Late Antiquity: From Marcus Aurelius to Muhammad, Thames and Hudson, London 1979.
  • BURY, John Bagnall, History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I. to The Deathe of Justinia (A.D. 395 to A. D. 565), Macmillian and Co. Limited, London 1923.
  • CAHEN, Claude, Pre-Ottoman Turkey, Taplinger Publishing, New York 1968.
  • CAHEN, Claude, The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rūm, Longman, London 2001.
  • CHIBNALL, Marjorie, Anglo-Norman England, 1066-1166, Blackwell, Oxford 1986.
  • COHEN, Samuel, “The Evolution of a Disaster: Gregory I, the Rhetoric of Suffering, and Lombard “Sieges” of Rome, 592-593”, Studies in Late Antiquity, V. 8/1, 2024, pp. 36-64.
  • COLLINS, Roger, Medieval Spain Unity in Diversity, 400-1000, Macmillan, London 1983.
  • COLLINS, Roger, The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797, Blackwell, Oxford 1989.
  • COLLINS, Roger, Visigothic Spain 409-711, Blackwell, Oxford 2004.
  • CONSTABLE, Giles, The Reformation of the Twelfth Century, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1996.
  • CONSTABLE, Giles, “Cluny and the First Crusade”, Le concile de Clermont de 1095 et l’appel à la croisade. Actes du Colloque universitaire international de Clermont-Ferrand (23-25 juin 1995) organisé et publié avec le concours du Conseil régional d’Auvergne, Collection de l’Ecole française de Rome, V. 5, Rome 1997, pp. 179-193.
  • COSTAMBEYS, Marios; Innes, Matthew; MacLean, Simon, The Carolingian World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2011.
  • CURTIS, Edmun, Roger of Sicily and the Normans in Lower Italy, 1016-1154, G.P. Putnam’s Sons, New York and London 1912.
  • DELOGU, Paolo, “Lombard and Carolingian Italy”, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Ed. Rosamond McKitterick, Vol. II c. 700 - c.900, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995, pp. 290-319.
  • DOWNHAM, Clare, “Vikings in England”, The Viking World, eds., Stefan Brink and Neil Price, Routledge, London 2008, pp. 341-349.
  • DURMAZ, Sayime, “Yüksek Ortaçağ’da Papa-İmparator Çatışması: Kılıç ile Âsâ’nın Savaşı”, Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, V. I/1, 2010, pp. 93-120.
  • DVORNIK, Francis, The Photian Schism: History and Legend, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1948.
  • EIDELBERG, P. G., “The coronation of Pepin as a turning point in West European history”, Kleio, V. 15/1-2, 1983, pp. 45-51.
  • ENGEL, Pál, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526, I.B. Tauris, London 2001.
  • ERDMANN, Carl, The Origin of the Idea of Crusade, trans. Marshall W. Baldwin and Walter Goffart, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1977.
  • FOURACRE, Paul, “Frankish Gaul to 814”, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Ed. Rosamond McKitterick, Vol. II c. 700 - c.900, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995, pp. 85-109.
  • FRASSETTO, Michael, Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe: Society in Transformation. Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2003.
  • GEARY, Patrick, J., Before France and Germany: The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World, OUP, Oxford 1988.
  • GREGORY BISHOP OF TOURS, The History of the Franks, trans. Ernest Brehaut, W. W. Norton & Company, New York 1969.
  • GOFFART, Walter, “Rome, Constantinople, and the Barbarians”, The American Historical Review, Vol. 86, No. 2 1981, pp. 275-306.
  • GOFFART, Walter, Barbarian Tides: The Migration Age and the Later Roman Empire, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 2006.
  • HALDON, John, Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, UCL Press, London 1999.
  • HALDON, John, Byzantium at War AD 600-1453, Routledge, Oxford 2003.
  • HARRIS, Jonathan, Byzantium and the Crusades, Bloomsbury, London 2014.
  • HAYWOOD, John, The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings, Penguin, London 1995.
  • HEATHER, Peter, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, Oxford University Press, USA 2005.
  • HEATHER, Peter, Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the birth of Europe, Oxford University Press, New York 2009.
  • HEYDEMANN, Gerda, “The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions”, A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, Ed. Jonathan Arnold; Shane Bjornlie; Kristina Sessa, Brill Academic Publishers, Leiden 2016, p. 17-46.
  • HILLENBRAND, Carole,Turkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2007.
  • HUSSEY, Joan M., The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1986.
  • KARACA, Sevtap, Gölgesiz, “I. Haçlı Seferi (1096) Öncesinde Bizans İmparatorluğu’nun Siyasî Durumuna Bakış”, Trakya Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, V. 2/4, 2012, pp. 141-153.
  • KENNEDY, Hugh, Muslim Spain and Portugal, Routledge, New York 2014.
  • KREUTZ, Barbara M., Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1991.
  • LANKILA, Tommi P., “The Saracen Raid of Rome in 846: An Example of Maritime Ghazw”, Travelling through Time: Essays in honour of Kaj Öhrnberg, eds. Sylvia Akar; Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila; Inka Nokso-Koivisto,. Studia Orientalia. Vol. 114, 2013, pp. 93-120.
  • LEV, Yaacov, State and Society in Fatimid Egypt, Brill, Leiden 1991.
  • LEVINE, J. M., “Reginald Pecock and Lorenzo Valla on the Donation of Constantine”, Studies in the Renaissance, V. XX, 1973, pp. 118-143.
  • MCKITTERICK, Rosamond, Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity, Cambirdge University Press, Cambridge 2008.
  • MCQUEEN, W. B., “Relations between the Normans and Byzantium 1071-1111”, Byzantion, V. 56, 1986, pp. 427-476.
  • METCALFE, Alex, The Muslims of Medieval Italy, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2009.
  • MILES, George C., “Byzantium and the Arabs: Relations in Crete and the Aegean Area”, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 18, 1964, pp. 1-32.
  • NEF, Annliese, “Reinterpreting the Aghlabids’ Sicilian Policy (827-910)”, The Aghlabids and their Neighbours, Ed. Glaire D. Anderson Corisande Fenwick Mariam Rosser-Owen, Brill, Leiden 2017, pp. 76-87.
  • NOBLE, Thomas, F. X., The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1984.
  • PEACOCK, Andrew C. S., The Great Seljuk Empire, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2015.
  • PRYOR, John, Geography, Techonology, and War: Studies in the maritime history of the Mediterranean, 649-1571, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1988.
  • Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources, Ed. William Stearns Davis, Vol. II, Allyn and Bacon, Boston 1912-1913.
  • REUTER, Timoty, Germany in the Early Middle Ages, c. 800-1056, Longman, London 1991.
  • RICHARDS, Jeffrey, The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476-752, Routledge, London 1979.
  • ROSENWEIN, Barbara H., Rhinoceros Bound: Cluny in the Tenth Century,: University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1982.
  • SARRIS, Peter, “The Eastern Roman Empire From Constantine to Heraclius (306-641)”, The Oxford History of Byzantium, Ed. Cyril Mango, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2002, pp. 19-70.
  • SARRIS, Peter, Empires of Faith: The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, 500-700, Oxford University Press, UK 2011.
  • SAWYER, Peter, The Age of the Vikings, Edward Arnold, London 1971.
  • TABACCO, Giovanni, The Struggle for Power in Medieval Italy: Structures of Political Rule, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1989.
  • TREADGOLD, Warren, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press, Stanford 1997.
  • ULLMANN, Walter, A Short History of the Papacy in the Middle Ages, Routledge, London 2003.
  • WALKER, Paul E., Exploring an Islamic Empire: Fatimid History and its Sources, I.B. Tauris, London 2002.
  • WICKHAM, Chris, Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society, 400-1000, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor 1981.
  • WILLIAMS, Gareth, “Raiding and Warefare”, The Viking World, eds., Stefan Brink and Neil Price, Routledge, London 2008, pp. 193-203.
  • WOOD, Ian, The Merovingian Kingdoms, 450-751, Longman, London 1994.
  • YORKE, Barbara, Kings and kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England, Routledge, London 1990.
  • https://sourcebooks.web.fordham.edu/source/urban2-5vers.asp Access time: 13.5.2025

HRİSTİYANLIK SINIRLARINDA ÖNLEYİCİ SAVUNMA: BİRİNCİ HAÇLI SEFERİ'NİN STRATEJİK BİR KORUMA OLARAK YENİDEN DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ

Year 2025, Volume: 7 Issue: 15, 711 - 728, 29.09.2025

Necmettin Ayan

https://doi.org/10.53718/gttad.1768354

Abstract

11. yüzyılın sonları, Batı Hıristiyanlığı için doğu, kuzey ve güney sınırlarında tehditlerin yaşandığı derin bir kargaşa dönemiydi. Bu istikrarsızlık ortamı, stratejik savunma konusunda yaygın bir panik havası yarattı ve bu da, günümüzde Orta Çağ dünyasının en dönüştürücü olaylarından biri olarak kabul edilen Birinci Haçlı Seferi’nin (1096-1099) şekillenmesinde önemli bir faktör oldu. Doğası ve gerekçesi uzun süredir tartışılan Birinci Haçlı Seferi, temel yapısı hakkında kritik sorular ortaya attı: Bu, Hıristiyan topraklarını ve hacıları korumak için gerekli olan meşru bir savunma savaşı mıydı - esasen kendini veya başkalarını savunmak için yapılan adil bir savaş mıydı - yoksa dini yayılmacılık tarafından yönlendirilen saldırgan bir kutsal savaş mıydı? Bu makale, genellikle dini misyonlar veya sömürgeci çabalar olarak görülen Haçlı Seferleri'nin, aslında Avrupa’nın savunmasız sınırlarını korumayı amaçlayan Papalık’ın stratejik bir hamlesi olduğu fikrini ortaya koymaktadır. Roma otoritesinin çöküşünden sonra, Papalık Orta Çağ Avrupa’sında önemli bir siyasi aktör olarak ortaya çıktı ve hem manevi nüfuz hem de askeri eylemler yoluyla güç kazandı. 11. yüzyılda Avrupa, kuzeyden (Viking saldırıları), güneyden (İberya ve Akdeniz’deki İslam yayılması nedeniyle) ve doğudan (Selçukluların Anadolu’ya ilerlemesi nedeniyle) ciddi bir tehdit altındaydı. Bu tehlikeler ışığında Papalık, Kudüs’ü geri almak için değil, bu istilacı güçlere karşı koruyucu bir tampon oluşturmak ve böylece Hıristiyan dünyasının kalbinin güvenliğini sağlamak için Haçlı Seferleri’ni başlattı. Bu çalışma, Haçlı Seferleri’ne yeni bir bakış açısı sunuyor ve sınır güvenliğinin ortaçağ Avrupa’nın yayılmacı stratejilerini nasıl etkilediğini gösteriyor.

Keywords

Haçlı Seferleri Hıristiyan-Müslüman İlişkileri Orta Çağ Savaşları Haçlı Seferleri İdeolojisi Önleyici Savunma

References

  • ABELS, Richard Alfred, The Great War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England, Routledge, New York 1998.
  • ABULAFIA, David, The Two Italies: Economic Relations Between the Norman Kingdom of Sicily and the Northern Communes, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1977.
  • ABULAFIA, David, The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean, Oxford University Press, New York 2011.
  • ANGOLD, Michael, “Belle Époque or Crisis? (1025-1118), The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c. 500-1492, Ed. Jonathan Shepard, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2008, pp. 583-626.
  • BACHRACH, Bernard S., Merovingian Military Organization, 481-751, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis 1972.
  • BARRACLOUGH, Geoffrey, Origins of Modern Germany, Blackwell, Oxford 1946.
  • BARTLETT, Robert, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950-1350, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1993.
  • BATES, David, William the Conqueror, Yale University Press, New Haven 2016.
  • BECKER, Brian N., “Europe, 100 to 1500 CE”, The Sea in History: The Medieval World / La mer dans l’histoire: Le Moyen Âge, Ed. Michele Balard, Christian Buchet, V. II, Boydell & Brewer Press, Woodbridge 2017, pp. 227-233.
  • BLOOM, Robert L.; Basil L. Crapster; Harold A. Dunkelberger, “7. The Two Swords in Theory and Practice. Pt. III: The Medieval Church." Ideas and Institutions of Western Man, Gettysburg College 1958, pp. 65-72.
  • BOUCHARD, Constance Brittain, “Burgundy and Provence, 879-1032”, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. III, c.900-c.1024, Ed. Timothy Reuter, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1999, pp. 328-345.
  • BOSWELL, A. Bruce, “The Kipchak Turks”, The Slavonic Review, Vol. 6/16, 1927, pp. 68-85.
  • BOSWORTH, C. E., “The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000-1217),” The Cambridge History of Iran, Ed. J. A. Boyle, V. 5, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1968, pp. 1-202.
  • BROWN, Peter, The World of Late Antiquity: From Marcus Aurelius to Muhammad, Thames and Hudson, London 1979.
  • BURY, John Bagnall, History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I. to The Deathe of Justinia (A.D. 395 to A. D. 565), Macmillian and Co. Limited, London 1923.
  • CAHEN, Claude, Pre-Ottoman Turkey, Taplinger Publishing, New York 1968.
  • CAHEN, Claude, The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rūm, Longman, London 2001.
  • CHIBNALL, Marjorie, Anglo-Norman England, 1066-1166, Blackwell, Oxford 1986.
  • COHEN, Samuel, “The Evolution of a Disaster: Gregory I, the Rhetoric of Suffering, and Lombard “Sieges” of Rome, 592-593”, Studies in Late Antiquity, V. 8/1, 2024, pp. 36-64.
  • COLLINS, Roger, Medieval Spain Unity in Diversity, 400-1000, Macmillan, London 1983.
  • COLLINS, Roger, The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797, Blackwell, Oxford 1989.
  • COLLINS, Roger, Visigothic Spain 409-711, Blackwell, Oxford 2004.
  • CONSTABLE, Giles, The Reformation of the Twelfth Century, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1996.
  • CONSTABLE, Giles, “Cluny and the First Crusade”, Le concile de Clermont de 1095 et l’appel à la croisade. Actes du Colloque universitaire international de Clermont-Ferrand (23-25 juin 1995) organisé et publié avec le concours du Conseil régional d’Auvergne, Collection de l’Ecole française de Rome, V. 5, Rome 1997, pp. 179-193.
  • COSTAMBEYS, Marios; Innes, Matthew; MacLean, Simon, The Carolingian World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2011.
  • CURTIS, Edmun, Roger of Sicily and the Normans in Lower Italy, 1016-1154, G.P. Putnam’s Sons, New York and London 1912.
  • DELOGU, Paolo, “Lombard and Carolingian Italy”, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Ed. Rosamond McKitterick, Vol. II c. 700 - c.900, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995, pp. 290-319.
  • DOWNHAM, Clare, “Vikings in England”, The Viking World, eds., Stefan Brink and Neil Price, Routledge, London 2008, pp. 341-349.
  • DURMAZ, Sayime, “Yüksek Ortaçağ’da Papa-İmparator Çatışması: Kılıç ile Âsâ’nın Savaşı”, Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, V. I/1, 2010, pp. 93-120.
  • DVORNIK, Francis, The Photian Schism: History and Legend, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1948.
  • EIDELBERG, P. G., “The coronation of Pepin as a turning point in West European history”, Kleio, V. 15/1-2, 1983, pp. 45-51.
  • ENGEL, Pál, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526, I.B. Tauris, London 2001.
  • ERDMANN, Carl, The Origin of the Idea of Crusade, trans. Marshall W. Baldwin and Walter Goffart, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1977.
  • FOURACRE, Paul, “Frankish Gaul to 814”, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Ed. Rosamond McKitterick, Vol. II c. 700 - c.900, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995, pp. 85-109.
  • FRASSETTO, Michael, Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe: Society in Transformation. Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2003.
  • GEARY, Patrick, J., Before France and Germany: The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World, OUP, Oxford 1988.
  • GREGORY BISHOP OF TOURS, The History of the Franks, trans. Ernest Brehaut, W. W. Norton & Company, New York 1969.
  • GOFFART, Walter, “Rome, Constantinople, and the Barbarians”, The American Historical Review, Vol. 86, No. 2 1981, pp. 275-306.
  • GOFFART, Walter, Barbarian Tides: The Migration Age and the Later Roman Empire, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 2006.
  • HALDON, John, Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, UCL Press, London 1999.
  • HALDON, John, Byzantium at War AD 600-1453, Routledge, Oxford 2003.
  • HARRIS, Jonathan, Byzantium and the Crusades, Bloomsbury, London 2014.
  • HAYWOOD, John, The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings, Penguin, London 1995.
  • HEATHER, Peter, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, Oxford University Press, USA 2005.
  • HEATHER, Peter, Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the birth of Europe, Oxford University Press, New York 2009.
  • HEYDEMANN, Gerda, “The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions”, A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, Ed. Jonathan Arnold; Shane Bjornlie; Kristina Sessa, Brill Academic Publishers, Leiden 2016, p. 17-46.
  • HILLENBRAND, Carole,Turkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2007.
  • HUSSEY, Joan M., The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1986.
  • KARACA, Sevtap, Gölgesiz, “I. Haçlı Seferi (1096) Öncesinde Bizans İmparatorluğu’nun Siyasî Durumuna Bakış”, Trakya Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, V. 2/4, 2012, pp. 141-153.
  • KENNEDY, Hugh, Muslim Spain and Portugal, Routledge, New York 2014.
  • KREUTZ, Barbara M., Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1991.
  • LANKILA, Tommi P., “The Saracen Raid of Rome in 846: An Example of Maritime Ghazw”, Travelling through Time: Essays in honour of Kaj Öhrnberg, eds. Sylvia Akar; Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila; Inka Nokso-Koivisto,. Studia Orientalia. Vol. 114, 2013, pp. 93-120.
  • LEV, Yaacov, State and Society in Fatimid Egypt, Brill, Leiden 1991.
  • LEVINE, J. M., “Reginald Pecock and Lorenzo Valla on the Donation of Constantine”, Studies in the Renaissance, V. XX, 1973, pp. 118-143.
  • MCKITTERICK, Rosamond, Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity, Cambirdge University Press, Cambridge 2008.
  • MCQUEEN, W. B., “Relations between the Normans and Byzantium 1071-1111”, Byzantion, V. 56, 1986, pp. 427-476.
  • METCALFE, Alex, The Muslims of Medieval Italy, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2009.
  • MILES, George C., “Byzantium and the Arabs: Relations in Crete and the Aegean Area”, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 18, 1964, pp. 1-32.
  • NEF, Annliese, “Reinterpreting the Aghlabids’ Sicilian Policy (827-910)”, The Aghlabids and their Neighbours, Ed. Glaire D. Anderson Corisande Fenwick Mariam Rosser-Owen, Brill, Leiden 2017, pp. 76-87.
  • NOBLE, Thomas, F. X., The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1984.
  • PEACOCK, Andrew C. S., The Great Seljuk Empire, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2015.
  • PRYOR, John, Geography, Techonology, and War: Studies in the maritime history of the Mediterranean, 649-1571, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1988.
  • Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources, Ed. William Stearns Davis, Vol. II, Allyn and Bacon, Boston 1912-1913.
  • REUTER, Timoty, Germany in the Early Middle Ages, c. 800-1056, Longman, London 1991.
  • RICHARDS, Jeffrey, The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476-752, Routledge, London 1979.
  • ROSENWEIN, Barbara H., Rhinoceros Bound: Cluny in the Tenth Century,: University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1982.
  • SARRIS, Peter, “The Eastern Roman Empire From Constantine to Heraclius (306-641)”, The Oxford History of Byzantium, Ed. Cyril Mango, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2002, pp. 19-70.
  • SARRIS, Peter, Empires of Faith: The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, 500-700, Oxford University Press, UK 2011.
  • SAWYER, Peter, The Age of the Vikings, Edward Arnold, London 1971.
  • TABACCO, Giovanni, The Struggle for Power in Medieval Italy: Structures of Political Rule, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1989.
  • TREADGOLD, Warren, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press, Stanford 1997.
  • ULLMANN, Walter, A Short History of the Papacy in the Middle Ages, Routledge, London 2003.
  • WALKER, Paul E., Exploring an Islamic Empire: Fatimid History and its Sources, I.B. Tauris, London 2002.
  • WICKHAM, Chris, Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society, 400-1000, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor 1981.
  • WILLIAMS, Gareth, “Raiding and Warefare”, The Viking World, eds., Stefan Brink and Neil Price, Routledge, London 2008, pp. 193-203.
  • WOOD, Ian, The Merovingian Kingdoms, 450-751, Longman, London 1994.
  • YORKE, Barbara, Kings and kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England, Routledge, London 1990.
  • https://sourcebooks.web.fordham.edu/source/urban2-5vers.asp Access time: 13.5.2025

PREEMPTIVE DEFENSE ON CHRISTENDOM’S FRONTIERS: REASSESSING THE FIRST CRUSADE AS A STRATEGIC SAFEGUARD

Year 2025, Volume: 7 Issue: 15, 711 - 728, 29.09.2025

Necmettin Ayan

https://doi.org/10.53718/gttad.1768354

Abstract

The late 11th century marked a time of deep turmoil for Western Christendom, marked by threats along its eastern, northern, and southern frontiers. This atmosphere of instability created a widespread sense of strategic defense panic-a crucial factor in shaping the First Crusade (1096-1099), now recognized as one of the most transformative events of the medieval world. The First Crusade, whose nature and justification have long been debated, has raised critical questions about its fundamental structure: Was it a legitimate defensive war justified by the need to protect Christian lands and pilgrims-essentially a just war waged in defense of oneself or others-or was it an aggressive holy war driven by religious expansionism? This paper presents the idea that the Crusades, often seen as religious missions or colonial efforts, were actually a strategic move by the Papacy aimed at defending Europe’s vulnerable borders. After the Roman authority crumbled, the Papacy emerged as a major political player in medieval Europe, gaining power through both spiritual influence and military action. By the 11th century, Europe was under serious threat from the North (with Viking raids), the South (due to Islamic expansion in Iberia and the Mediterranean), and the East (as the Seljuks advanced into Anatolia). In light of these dangers, the Papacy launched the Crusades not just to reclaim Jerusalem, but to create a protective buffer against these encroaching forces, thus ensuring the safety of Christendom’s heartlands. This study offers a fresh perspective on the Crusades and illustrates how the need for frontier security influenced medieval Europe’s expansionist strategies.

Keywords

Crusades Christian-Muslim Relations Medieval Warfare Crusading Ideology Preemptive Defense.

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  • ENGEL, Pál, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526, I.B. Tauris, London 2001.
  • ERDMANN, Carl, The Origin of the Idea of Crusade, trans. Marshall W. Baldwin and Walter Goffart, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1977.
  • FOURACRE, Paul, “Frankish Gaul to 814”, The New Cambridge Medieval History, Ed. Rosamond McKitterick, Vol. II c. 700 - c.900, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995, pp. 85-109.
  • FRASSETTO, Michael, Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe: Society in Transformation. Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2003.
  • GEARY, Patrick, J., Before France and Germany: The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World, OUP, Oxford 1988.
  • GREGORY BISHOP OF TOURS, The History of the Franks, trans. Ernest Brehaut, W. W. Norton & Company, New York 1969.
  • GOFFART, Walter, “Rome, Constantinople, and the Barbarians”, The American Historical Review, Vol. 86, No. 2 1981, pp. 275-306.
  • GOFFART, Walter, Barbarian Tides: The Migration Age and the Later Roman Empire, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 2006.
  • HALDON, John, Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, UCL Press, London 1999.
  • HALDON, John, Byzantium at War AD 600-1453, Routledge, Oxford 2003.
  • HARRIS, Jonathan, Byzantium and the Crusades, Bloomsbury, London 2014.
  • HAYWOOD, John, The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings, Penguin, London 1995.
  • HEATHER, Peter, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, Oxford University Press, USA 2005.
  • HEATHER, Peter, Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the birth of Europe, Oxford University Press, New York 2009.
  • HEYDEMANN, Gerda, “The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions”, A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, Ed. Jonathan Arnold; Shane Bjornlie; Kristina Sessa, Brill Academic Publishers, Leiden 2016, p. 17-46.
  • HILLENBRAND, Carole,Turkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2007.
  • HUSSEY, Joan M., The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1986.
  • KARACA, Sevtap, Gölgesiz, “I. Haçlı Seferi (1096) Öncesinde Bizans İmparatorluğu’nun Siyasî Durumuna Bakış”, Trakya Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, V. 2/4, 2012, pp. 141-153.
  • KENNEDY, Hugh, Muslim Spain and Portugal, Routledge, New York 2014.
  • KREUTZ, Barbara M., Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1991.
  • LANKILA, Tommi P., “The Saracen Raid of Rome in 846: An Example of Maritime Ghazw”, Travelling through Time: Essays in honour of Kaj Öhrnberg, eds. Sylvia Akar; Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila; Inka Nokso-Koivisto,. Studia Orientalia. Vol. 114, 2013, pp. 93-120.
  • LEV, Yaacov, State and Society in Fatimid Egypt, Brill, Leiden 1991.
  • LEVINE, J. M., “Reginald Pecock and Lorenzo Valla on the Donation of Constantine”, Studies in the Renaissance, V. XX, 1973, pp. 118-143.
  • MCKITTERICK, Rosamond, Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity, Cambirdge University Press, Cambridge 2008.
  • MCQUEEN, W. B., “Relations between the Normans and Byzantium 1071-1111”, Byzantion, V. 56, 1986, pp. 427-476.
  • METCALFE, Alex, The Muslims of Medieval Italy, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2009.
  • MILES, George C., “Byzantium and the Arabs: Relations in Crete and the Aegean Area”, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 18, 1964, pp. 1-32.
  • NEF, Annliese, “Reinterpreting the Aghlabids’ Sicilian Policy (827-910)”, The Aghlabids and their Neighbours, Ed. Glaire D. Anderson Corisande Fenwick Mariam Rosser-Owen, Brill, Leiden 2017, pp. 76-87.
  • NOBLE, Thomas, F. X., The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1984.
  • PEACOCK, Andrew C. S., The Great Seljuk Empire, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2015.
  • PRYOR, John, Geography, Techonology, and War: Studies in the maritime history of the Mediterranean, 649-1571, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1988.
  • Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources, Ed. William Stearns Davis, Vol. II, Allyn and Bacon, Boston 1912-1913.
  • REUTER, Timoty, Germany in the Early Middle Ages, c. 800-1056, Longman, London 1991.
  • RICHARDS, Jeffrey, The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476-752, Routledge, London 1979.
  • ROSENWEIN, Barbara H., Rhinoceros Bound: Cluny in the Tenth Century,: University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1982.
  • SARRIS, Peter, “The Eastern Roman Empire From Constantine to Heraclius (306-641)”, The Oxford History of Byzantium, Ed. Cyril Mango, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2002, pp. 19-70.
  • SARRIS, Peter, Empires of Faith: The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, 500-700, Oxford University Press, UK 2011.
  • SAWYER, Peter, The Age of the Vikings, Edward Arnold, London 1971.
  • TABACCO, Giovanni, The Struggle for Power in Medieval Italy: Structures of Political Rule, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1989.
  • TREADGOLD, Warren, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press, Stanford 1997.
  • ULLMANN, Walter, A Short History of the Papacy in the Middle Ages, Routledge, London 2003.
  • WALKER, Paul E., Exploring an Islamic Empire: Fatimid History and its Sources, I.B. Tauris, London 2002.
  • WICKHAM, Chris, Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society, 400-1000, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor 1981.
  • WILLIAMS, Gareth, “Raiding and Warefare”, The Viking World, eds., Stefan Brink and Neil Price, Routledge, London 2008, pp. 193-203.
  • WOOD, Ian, The Merovingian Kingdoms, 450-751, Longman, London 1994.
  • YORKE, Barbara, Kings and kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England, Routledge, London 1990.
  • https://sourcebooks.web.fordham.edu/source/urban2-5vers.asp Access time: 13.5.2025
There are 78 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects General Turkish History (Other)
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Necmettin Ayan 0000-0002-9999-8821

Publication Date September 29, 2025
Submission Date August 19, 2025
Acceptance Date September 27, 2025
Published in Issue Year 2025 Volume: 7 Issue: 15

Cite

Chicago Ayan, Necmettin. “PREEMPTIVE DEFENSE ON CHRISTENDOM’S FRONTIERS: REASSESSING THE FIRST CRUSADE AS A STRATEGIC SAFEGUARD”. Genel Türk Tarihi Araştırmaları Dergisi 7, no. 15 (September 2025): 711-28. https://doi.org/10.53718/gttad.1768354.
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