BibTex RIS Cite

Bilim Ahlakı Normlarının Etik Temellendirilmesi: Bilim İnsanlarının Dışsal Sorumlulukları

Year 2015, Issue: 2, 109 - 124, 01.08.2015

Abstract

Bilim insanlarının ahlaki sorumlulukları konusu bilim dünyasının gündemine II. Dünya Savaşı’nı izleyen onyıllarda yerleşmiştir. Bilimsel sahtecilik olgularının 1980’lerde görünür biçimde yaygınlaşması ve toplumda bilime güveni sarsması karşısında, uluslararası ve bölgesel ölçekte lider akademik ağlar, doğru araştırma pratiklerini kodlaştırma yönünde bir tartışmaya önayak olmuşlardır. Bunu izleyen davranış kodları, bilim insanlarının topluma ve insanlığa yönelik ‘dışsal’ sorumluluklarına da çeşitli biçimlerde değinmekle birlikte, esas olarak bilime ve bilim topluluğuna yönelik ‘içsel’ sorumluluklarla ilgili kusurlu davranışlar üzerinde odaklanmıştır. Bu kodlar ayrıca, bilimsel araştırmanın etik standartlarını evrensel etik ilkelere referansla temellendirmekten uzak duran bir etik çoğulculuğu yansıtmaktadır. Oysa böyle bir temellendirme gereği onyıllar önce, o dönemdeki yerleşik bilim ‘göreneği’nin zaaflarının ve Hippokrates etiğinin biyotıp araştırmalarında insan haklarını korumaya yetmediğinin apaçık ortaya çıktığı Nuremberg Doktorlar Davası’nda teslim edilmiş, bunun sonucunda 1947 Nuremberg Kodu’yla Hippokrates etiğine ilk kez bir insan hakları perspektifi kazandırılmıştır. Bu yazıda, bilim insanlarının uluslarararası kabul görmüş davranış kodlarında yazılı ya da varsayılmış dışsal ve içsel sorumlulukları için bütünsel bir etik temellendirmenin zorunluluğu savunulmaktadır. Bu zorunluluğu doğrulayan bir saptama olarak, insan değerini görelileştirme yoluyla bilimsel araştırmalarda insan hakları ihlallerini fiilen meşrulaştırmış bir anti–etiğin, etik düşünmeyi bilimin tekeline alıp felsefi etiği hükümsüz kılmaya yönelik tarihsel bir akıma dayandığı gösterilmeye çalışılmıştır. Bunun karşısında, insanın mutlak içsel değerine dayalı Kantçı etik ile hem hakikate hem de ussal bir varlık olarak insana saygıyı temel alan Popperci epistemoloji, bilim yapmanın ahlaki normlarını – bilimi anti–ahlakın hamleleri karşısında tahkim edebilecek biçimde – etik olarak temellendirme olanağı sunmaktadır. Makalede dışsal sorumluluklar için böyle bir temellendirme önerisi de yer almaktadır

References

  • ALLEA (All European Academies). (2010). A European code of conduct for research integrity. Retrieved from http://www. allea.org/Content/ALLEA/Scientific%20Integrity/A%20 E u ro p e a n % 2 0 C o d e % 2 0 o f % 2 0 C o n d u c t % 2 0 fo r % 2 0 Research%20Integrity_final.10.10.pdf
  • Babbage, C. (2013 [1830]). Reflections on the decline of science in England, and on some of its causes. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. [Orijinal ilk basım: 1830 London: B. Fellows] http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139381048
  • Babbage, C. (2009 [1837]). The ninth Bridgewater treatise: A fragment. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. [Orijinal ilk basım: 1837, London: John Murray]
  • Baracchi, C. (2007). Aristotle’s ethics as first philosophy. New York: Cambridge University Press
  • Bayertz, K. (1994 [1987]). GenEthics: Technological intervention in human reproduction as a philosophical problem. (S. L. Kirkby, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Orijinal Almanca basım: 1987]
  • Beecher, H. K. (2001 [1966]). Ethics and clinical research. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 79(4), 367-372. [Orijinal makale: The New England Journal of Medicine, 274(24), 1354- 1360].
  • Beiser, F. C. (2006). Moral faith and the highest good. In P. Guyer (Ed.), The Cambridge companion to Kant and modern philosophy (s. 588–629). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Beauchamp, T. L. (1994). The ‘‘four-principles’’ approach. In R. Gillon (Ed.), Principles of health care ethics (s. 3–12). NY: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (2001). Principles of biomedical ethics (5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Beauchamp, T. L. (2007). The ‘four principles’ approach to health care Ethics. In R. E. Ashcroft, A. Dawson, H. Draper & J. R. McMillan (Eds), Principles of health care ethics (2nd ed., s. 3–10). West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
  • Berkowitz, (1995). Nietzsche: The ethics of an immoralist. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  • Bigelow, J., & Pargetter, R. (2007). Integrity and autonomy. American Philosophical Quarterly, 44(1), 39–49.
  • Gardner, S. (2006). The primacy of practical reason. In G. Bird (Ed.), A companion to Kant (s. 259–274). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
  • Habermas, J. (2003 [2001]). The debate on the ethical self- understanding of the species. In The Future of Human Nature (s. 16–74). Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Haeckel, E. (1887 [1868]). History of creation (Vol. 1). New York: D. Appleton and Company. [Almanca basım, 1868]
  • Harkness, J., Lederer, S. E., & Wikler, D. (2001). Laying ethical foundations for clinical research. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 79(4), 365, 366.
  • Herman, B. (1993). The practice of moral judgment. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  • Heubel, F., & Biller-Andorno, N. (2005). The contribution of Kantian moral theory to contemporary medical ethics: A critical analysis. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 8(1), 5–18. doi: 10.1007/s11019-005-0104-7
  • Hodge, J. (2003). The notebook programmes and projects of Darwin’s London years. In J. Hodge & G. Radick (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to Darwin (s. 40-68). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Hodge, J. & Radick, G. (2003). Introduction. In J. Hodge & G. Radick (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to Darwin (s. 1-14). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Humboldt von, A. (1829). Speech made at the opening of the Society of German Naturalists and Natural Philosophers at Berlin, the 18th September 1828. Edinburgh Journal of Science, 10(2), 227-232.
  • Humboldt von A. (1850). Cosmos: A sketch of the universe (Vol. I). (E. C. Otté, Trans.). New York: Harper & Brothers.
  • Hursthouse, R. (1999). On virtue ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press
  • Huxley, J. (1963). The Future of man – Evolutionary aspects. In G. Wolstenholm (Ed.), Man and his future: A CIBA Foundation volume (s. 1-22). Boston, Toronto: Little, Brown and Company.
  • Huxley, T. H. (2009 [1893]). The Romanes Lecture 1893: Evolution and ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (İlk basım: 1893, London: MacMillan and Co.)
  • IOM–NRC (Institute of Medicine, National Research Council). (2002). Integrity in scientific research. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Retrieved from http://www.nap. edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309084792
  • Irzık, G., & Erzan, A. (2008). Bilim etiği ve yöntem sorunu. In A. Erzan (Ed.), Bilim etiği elkitabı (s. 10–13). İstanbul: Türkiye Bilimler Akademisi.
  • Kansu, E. (2009). Bilim Etiği Sempozyumu. Ankara: Türkiye Bilimler Akademisi.
  • Kant, I. (1996a [1785]). Groundwork of the metaphysics of morals. In M. J. Gregor (Ed.), The Cambridge edition of the works of Immanuel Kant: Practical philosophy (s. 41–93). (M. J. Gregor, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Kant, I. (1996b [1797]). The metaphysics of morals. In M. J. Gregor (Ed.), The Cambridge edition of the works of Immanuel Kant: Practical philosophy (s. 363–603). (M. J. Gregor, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Galton, F. (1908). Memories of my life. London: Methuen & Co. [Chapter XXI. Race Improvement]
  • Nietzsche, F. (2005b [1888b]). Ecce homo. In A. Ridley & J. Norman (Eds.), Anti–Christ, Ecce homo, Twilighth of the idols, and other writings (s. 69–151). (J. Norman, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Olesco, K. (2005). Humboldtian science. In J. L. Heilbron (Ed.), The Oxford guide to the history of physics and astronomy (s. 159- 162). Oxford. Univ. Press.
  • O’Neill, O. (1989). Constructions of reason: Explorations of Kant’s practical philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • O’Neill, O. (2003). Autonomy and trust in bioethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Panofsky, E. (1955 [1939]). Introduction: The History of art as a humanistic discipline. In Meaning in the visual arts: Essays in and on art history (s. 1-25). New York: Doubleday Anchor Books.
  • Paul, D. B. (1998). The politics of heredity: Essays on eugenics, biomedicine, and the nature-nurture debate. Albany: State University of New York Press.
  • Pappworth, M. H. (1990). “Human guinea pigs”--a history. BMJ, 301(6766), 1456–1460. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/ bmj.301.6766.1456-1460.
  • Pigman, W., & Carmichael, E. B. (1950). An ethical code for scientists. Science, New Series, 111(2894), 643-647.
  • Popper, K. R. (1962). Conjectures and refutations: The growth of scientific knowledge. New York: Basic Books.
  • Popper, K. R. (1970). The moral responsibility of the scientist. In P. Weingartner & G. Zecha (Eds.), Induction, physics, and ethics: Proceedings and discussions of the 1968 Salzburg Colloquium in the Philosophy of Science (s. 329–335). Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company.
  • Popper, K. R. (1998 [1993]). The world of Parmenides: Essays on the presocratic enlightenment. London: Routledge.
  • Popper, K. (2000 [1994] [1989]). In search of a better world. Lectures and essays from thirty years. London, New York: Routledge.
  • Popper, K. R. (2011 [1945]). The open society and its enemies (One–volume ed.). London: Routledge.
  • Post, S. G. (Ed.). (2004). Encyclopedia of Bioethics (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan
  • Ravat, J. (2015). Darwinian morality, moral darwinism. In T. Heams, P. Huneman, G. Lecointre & M. Silberstein (Eds.), Handbook of evolutionary thinking in the sciences (s. 747-759). Dordrecht, Heidelberg, New York, London: Springer.
  • Resnik, D. B. (1998). The ethics of science: An introduction. London: Routledge
  • Richards, R. J. (2003). Darwin on mind, morals and emotions. In J. Hodge & G. Radick (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to Darwin (s. 92-115). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Shell, S. M. (2008). Kant’s concept of human dignity as a resource for bioethics. In Human dignity and bioethics (s. 333–349). Washington, D.C.: President’s Council on Bioethics.
  • Shuster, E. (1997). Fifty years later: The significance of the Nuremberg Code. The New England Journal of Medicine, 337(20). 1436-1440. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199711133372006
  • Norman, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • WCRI (World Conferences on Research Integrity). (2010). Singapore statement on research integrity. Retrieved from http://www.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/singapore_statement.pdf
  • WCRI (World Conferences on Research Integrity). (2013). Montreal statement on research integrity in cross-boundary research collaborations. Retrieved from http://www.researchintegrity. org/Statements/Montreal%20Statement%20English.pdf
  • Weindling, P. J. (2004). Nazi medicine and the Nuremberg trials. Palgrave MacMillan.
  • Weingartner, P., & Zecha, G. (Eds.). (1970). Induction, physics, and ethics: Proceedings and discussions of the 1968 Salzburg Colloquium in the Philosophy of Science. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company.
  • Wilson, E. (1978 [1975]). Sociobiology: The new synthesis. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
  • Wolin, S. S. (2004). Politics and vision : Continuity and innovation in Western political thought (Expanded ed.). Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press.
  • Zagzebski, L. T. (1998). Virtues of the mind: An inquiry into the nature of virtue and the ethical foundations of knowledge. New York: Cambridge University Press
  • An exploration of the science and ethics of altering the genes we pass to our children (s. 73-95). New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ethical Justification of Moral Norms in Scientific Research: Scientists’ External Responsibilities

Year 2015, Issue: 2, 109 - 124, 01.08.2015

Abstract

Scientists’ moral responsibilities have become a focus for the scientific community over the postwar decades. International and regional networks of leading academic bodies have responded to a widely perceived increase in scientific fraud and the ensued loss of public trust in science during the 1980s, and initiated a discussion with a view to codifying good practice in research. While scientists’ “external” responsibilities towards society and the humankind have been variously addressed, codes drafted since then mainly dwell on problems of misconduct concerning scientists’ “internal” responsibilities towards science and to the scientific community. They also reflect an ethical pluralism, which declines justifying moral standards in research with reference to universal ethical principles. However, the need for such justification has been first recognized decades ago, during the Doctor’s Trial in Nuremberg, where the shortcomings of the established ethos of science and the inadequacy of the Hippocratic ethics in safeguarding human rights in research had become flagrant, with the resultant Nuremberg Code of 1947 introducing a human rights perspective into Hippocratic ethics. This paper argues for the necessity of an integral ethical justification of scientists’ both external and inner responsibilities, as put down or assumed by internationally acclaimed codes of conduct. Such necessity is validated by the evidence that a historical current to monopolize ethical thinking in the name of science and nullify philosophical ethics lies at the root of an anti–morality that relativized human worth and virtually legitimized human rights violations in scientific practice. Kantian ethics based on humans’ absolute inner worth, and Popperian epistemology rooted in respect for truth and for humans as rational beings, pledge an ethical justification of moral norms in science so as to reinforce the latter against intrusions of anti–morality. The paper concludes with an attempt to such a justification for scientists’ external responsibilities

References

  • ALLEA (All European Academies). (2010). A European code of conduct for research integrity. Retrieved from http://www. allea.org/Content/ALLEA/Scientific%20Integrity/A%20 E u ro p e a n % 2 0 C o d e % 2 0 o f % 2 0 C o n d u c t % 2 0 fo r % 2 0 Research%20Integrity_final.10.10.pdf
  • Babbage, C. (2013 [1830]). Reflections on the decline of science in England, and on some of its causes. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. [Orijinal ilk basım: 1830 London: B. Fellows] http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139381048
  • Babbage, C. (2009 [1837]). The ninth Bridgewater treatise: A fragment. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. [Orijinal ilk basım: 1837, London: John Murray]
  • Baracchi, C. (2007). Aristotle’s ethics as first philosophy. New York: Cambridge University Press
  • Bayertz, K. (1994 [1987]). GenEthics: Technological intervention in human reproduction as a philosophical problem. (S. L. Kirkby, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Orijinal Almanca basım: 1987]
  • Beecher, H. K. (2001 [1966]). Ethics and clinical research. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 79(4), 367-372. [Orijinal makale: The New England Journal of Medicine, 274(24), 1354- 1360].
  • Beiser, F. C. (2006). Moral faith and the highest good. In P. Guyer (Ed.), The Cambridge companion to Kant and modern philosophy (s. 588–629). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Beauchamp, T. L. (1994). The ‘‘four-principles’’ approach. In R. Gillon (Ed.), Principles of health care ethics (s. 3–12). NY: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (2001). Principles of biomedical ethics (5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Beauchamp, T. L. (2007). The ‘four principles’ approach to health care Ethics. In R. E. Ashcroft, A. Dawson, H. Draper & J. R. McMillan (Eds), Principles of health care ethics (2nd ed., s. 3–10). West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
  • Berkowitz, (1995). Nietzsche: The ethics of an immoralist. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  • Bigelow, J., & Pargetter, R. (2007). Integrity and autonomy. American Philosophical Quarterly, 44(1), 39–49.
  • Gardner, S. (2006). The primacy of practical reason. In G. Bird (Ed.), A companion to Kant (s. 259–274). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
  • Habermas, J. (2003 [2001]). The debate on the ethical self- understanding of the species. In The Future of Human Nature (s. 16–74). Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Haeckel, E. (1887 [1868]). History of creation (Vol. 1). New York: D. Appleton and Company. [Almanca basım, 1868]
  • Harkness, J., Lederer, S. E., & Wikler, D. (2001). Laying ethical foundations for clinical research. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 79(4), 365, 366.
  • Herman, B. (1993). The practice of moral judgment. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  • Heubel, F., & Biller-Andorno, N. (2005). The contribution of Kantian moral theory to contemporary medical ethics: A critical analysis. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 8(1), 5–18. doi: 10.1007/s11019-005-0104-7
  • Hodge, J. (2003). The notebook programmes and projects of Darwin’s London years. In J. Hodge & G. Radick (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to Darwin (s. 40-68). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Hodge, J. & Radick, G. (2003). Introduction. In J. Hodge & G. Radick (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to Darwin (s. 1-14). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Humboldt von, A. (1829). Speech made at the opening of the Society of German Naturalists and Natural Philosophers at Berlin, the 18th September 1828. Edinburgh Journal of Science, 10(2), 227-232.
  • Humboldt von A. (1850). Cosmos: A sketch of the universe (Vol. I). (E. C. Otté, Trans.). New York: Harper & Brothers.
  • Hursthouse, R. (1999). On virtue ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press
  • Huxley, J. (1963). The Future of man – Evolutionary aspects. In G. Wolstenholm (Ed.), Man and his future: A CIBA Foundation volume (s. 1-22). Boston, Toronto: Little, Brown and Company.
  • Huxley, T. H. (2009 [1893]). The Romanes Lecture 1893: Evolution and ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (İlk basım: 1893, London: MacMillan and Co.)
  • IOM–NRC (Institute of Medicine, National Research Council). (2002). Integrity in scientific research. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Retrieved from http://www.nap. edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309084792
  • Irzık, G., & Erzan, A. (2008). Bilim etiği ve yöntem sorunu. In A. Erzan (Ed.), Bilim etiği elkitabı (s. 10–13). İstanbul: Türkiye Bilimler Akademisi.
  • Kansu, E. (2009). Bilim Etiği Sempozyumu. Ankara: Türkiye Bilimler Akademisi.
  • Kant, I. (1996a [1785]). Groundwork of the metaphysics of morals. In M. J. Gregor (Ed.), The Cambridge edition of the works of Immanuel Kant: Practical philosophy (s. 41–93). (M. J. Gregor, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Kant, I. (1996b [1797]). The metaphysics of morals. In M. J. Gregor (Ed.), The Cambridge edition of the works of Immanuel Kant: Practical philosophy (s. 363–603). (M. J. Gregor, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Galton, F. (1908). Memories of my life. London: Methuen & Co. [Chapter XXI. Race Improvement]
  • Nietzsche, F. (2005b [1888b]). Ecce homo. In A. Ridley & J. Norman (Eds.), Anti–Christ, Ecce homo, Twilighth of the idols, and other writings (s. 69–151). (J. Norman, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Olesco, K. (2005). Humboldtian science. In J. L. Heilbron (Ed.), The Oxford guide to the history of physics and astronomy (s. 159- 162). Oxford. Univ. Press.
  • O’Neill, O. (1989). Constructions of reason: Explorations of Kant’s practical philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • O’Neill, O. (2003). Autonomy and trust in bioethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Panofsky, E. (1955 [1939]). Introduction: The History of art as a humanistic discipline. In Meaning in the visual arts: Essays in and on art history (s. 1-25). New York: Doubleday Anchor Books.
  • Paul, D. B. (1998). The politics of heredity: Essays on eugenics, biomedicine, and the nature-nurture debate. Albany: State University of New York Press.
  • Pappworth, M. H. (1990). “Human guinea pigs”--a history. BMJ, 301(6766), 1456–1460. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/ bmj.301.6766.1456-1460.
  • Pigman, W., & Carmichael, E. B. (1950). An ethical code for scientists. Science, New Series, 111(2894), 643-647.
  • Popper, K. R. (1962). Conjectures and refutations: The growth of scientific knowledge. New York: Basic Books.
  • Popper, K. R. (1970). The moral responsibility of the scientist. In P. Weingartner & G. Zecha (Eds.), Induction, physics, and ethics: Proceedings and discussions of the 1968 Salzburg Colloquium in the Philosophy of Science (s. 329–335). Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company.
  • Popper, K. R. (1998 [1993]). The world of Parmenides: Essays on the presocratic enlightenment. London: Routledge.
  • Popper, K. (2000 [1994] [1989]). In search of a better world. Lectures and essays from thirty years. London, New York: Routledge.
  • Popper, K. R. (2011 [1945]). The open society and its enemies (One–volume ed.). London: Routledge.
  • Post, S. G. (Ed.). (2004). Encyclopedia of Bioethics (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan
  • Ravat, J. (2015). Darwinian morality, moral darwinism. In T. Heams, P. Huneman, G. Lecointre & M. Silberstein (Eds.), Handbook of evolutionary thinking in the sciences (s. 747-759). Dordrecht, Heidelberg, New York, London: Springer.
  • Resnik, D. B. (1998). The ethics of science: An introduction. London: Routledge
  • Richards, R. J. (2003). Darwin on mind, morals and emotions. In J. Hodge & G. Radick (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to Darwin (s. 92-115). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Shell, S. M. (2008). Kant’s concept of human dignity as a resource for bioethics. In Human dignity and bioethics (s. 333–349). Washington, D.C.: President’s Council on Bioethics.
  • Shuster, E. (1997). Fifty years later: The significance of the Nuremberg Code. The New England Journal of Medicine, 337(20). 1436-1440. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199711133372006
  • Norman, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • WCRI (World Conferences on Research Integrity). (2010). Singapore statement on research integrity. Retrieved from http://www.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/singapore_statement.pdf
  • WCRI (World Conferences on Research Integrity). (2013). Montreal statement on research integrity in cross-boundary research collaborations. Retrieved from http://www.researchintegrity. org/Statements/Montreal%20Statement%20English.pdf
  • Weindling, P. J. (2004). Nazi medicine and the Nuremberg trials. Palgrave MacMillan.
  • Weingartner, P., & Zecha, G. (Eds.). (1970). Induction, physics, and ethics: Proceedings and discussions of the 1968 Salzburg Colloquium in the Philosophy of Science. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company.
  • Wilson, E. (1978 [1975]). Sociobiology: The new synthesis. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
  • Wolin, S. S. (2004). Politics and vision : Continuity and innovation in Western political thought (Expanded ed.). Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press.
  • Zagzebski, L. T. (1998). Virtues of the mind: An inquiry into the nature of virtue and the ethical foundations of knowledge. New York: Cambridge University Press
  • An exploration of the science and ethics of altering the genes we pass to our children (s. 73-95). New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
There are 59 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Journal Section Research Article
Authors

Mehmet Aközer This is me

Emel Aközer This is me

Publication Date August 1, 2015
Published in Issue Year 2015 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Aközer, M., & Aközer, E. (2015). Bilim Ahlakı Normlarının Etik Temellendirilmesi: Bilim İnsanlarının Dışsal Sorumlulukları. Yükseköğretim Ve Bilim Dergisi(2), 109-124.
AMA Aközer M, Aközer E. Bilim Ahlakı Normlarının Etik Temellendirilmesi: Bilim İnsanlarının Dışsal Sorumlulukları. J Higher Edu Sci. August 2015;(2):109-124.
Chicago Aközer, Mehmet, and Emel Aközer. “Bilim Ahlakı Normlarının Etik Temellendirilmesi: Bilim İnsanlarının Dışsal Sorumlulukları”. Yükseköğretim Ve Bilim Dergisi, no. 2 (August 2015): 109-24.
EndNote Aközer M, Aközer E (August 1, 2015) Bilim Ahlakı Normlarının Etik Temellendirilmesi: Bilim İnsanlarının Dışsal Sorumlulukları. Yükseköğretim ve Bilim Dergisi 2 109–124.
IEEE M. Aközer and E. Aközer, “Bilim Ahlakı Normlarının Etik Temellendirilmesi: Bilim İnsanlarının Dışsal Sorumlulukları”, J Higher Edu Sci, no. 2, pp. 109–124, August 2015.
ISNAD Aközer, Mehmet - Aközer, Emel. “Bilim Ahlakı Normlarının Etik Temellendirilmesi: Bilim İnsanlarının Dışsal Sorumlulukları”. Yükseköğretim ve Bilim Dergisi 2 (August 2015), 109-124.
JAMA Aközer M, Aközer E. Bilim Ahlakı Normlarının Etik Temellendirilmesi: Bilim İnsanlarının Dışsal Sorumlulukları. J Higher Edu Sci. 2015;:109–124.
MLA Aközer, Mehmet and Emel Aközer. “Bilim Ahlakı Normlarının Etik Temellendirilmesi: Bilim İnsanlarının Dışsal Sorumlulukları”. Yükseköğretim Ve Bilim Dergisi, no. 2, 2015, pp. 109-24.
Vancouver Aközer M, Aközer E. Bilim Ahlakı Normlarının Etik Temellendirilmesi: Bilim İnsanlarının Dışsal Sorumlulukları. J Higher Edu Sci. 2015(2):109-24.