Facial Width-to-Height Ratio Calculated via Direct Measurement and its Relation to Aggressive Behaviour

Abstract

The human face plays a fundamental role in communication and social interactions. Whether faces reflect behavioural or personality traits has been widely debated. The facial width-to-height ratio has emerged as a popular measure in this context because testosterone is believed to promote increased bizygomatic width in males, leading to a higher ratio. Testosterone is thought to be related with aggressive behaviour, thus, many previous studies have focused on the relationship between the facial width-toheight ratio and aggressiveness. However, most studies have focused on small Western samples, often relying on measurements derived from two-dimensional photographs. In this study, we examined the relationship between the facial width-to-height ratio and self-reported aggressive behaviour by directly measuring the facial height and width to calculate the facial width-to-height ratio. Our sample consisted of 196 students (88 males and 108 females). We assessed aggression using the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire, which contains various subdomains. Supporting some prior research, our results did not reveal significant sexual dimorphism in the facial width-to-height ratio, nor did it associate with self-reported aggressiveness in the expected direction. In females, the subdomain of verbal aggression negatively predicted the facial widthto-height ratio, but after controlling for BMI, the relationship became insignificant. We also found a correlation between the facial width-to-height ratio and body mass index, suggesting that the facial width-to-height ratio may reflect underlying body mass differences rather than distinct facial morphological variations. Thus, we recommend a cautious approach when examining the facial width-to-height ratio as a sexually dimorphic feature.

Keywords

• Facial Width-to-Height Ratio
• fWHR
• Aggressiveness
• Testosterone
• Facial Width

References

1. Archer, J. (2006). Testosterone and human aggression: an evaluation of the challenge hypothesis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30(3), 319-345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. neubiorev.2004.12.007 google scholar
2. Atchley, W. R., Gaskins, C. T., & Anderson, D. (1976). Statistical properties of ratios. I. Empirical results. Systematic Zoology, 25(2), 137-148. https://doi.org/10.2307/2412740 google scholar
3. Batrinos, M. L. (2012). Testosterone and aggressive behavior in man. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 10(3), 563. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijem.3661 google scholar
4. Bird, B. M., Jofre, V S. C., Geniole, S. N., Welker, K. M., Zilioli, S., Maestripieri, D., ... & Carre, J. M. (2016). Does the facial width-to-height ratio map onto variability in men’s testosterone concentrations?. Evolution and Human Behavior, 37(5), 392-398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. evolhumbehav.2016.03.004 google scholar
5. Buss, A. H., & Warren, W. L. (2000). Aggression questionnaire:(AQ). Torrence, CA: Western Psychological Services. google scholar
6. Can, S. (2002). Study of validity and reliability of Aggression Questionnaire for Turkish population. Unpublished thesis, GATA/Haydarpaşa Training and Research Hospital, Department of Psychiatry: İstanbul. google scholar
7. Carre, J. M., & McCormick, C. M. (2008). In your face: facial metrics predict aggressive behaviour in the laboratory and in varsity and professional hockey players. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 275(1651), 2651-2656. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.0873 google scholar
8. Caton, N. R., Zhao, A., Lewis, D. M., & Dixson, B. (2022). Facial masculinity predicts men’s actual and perceived aggressiveness. Preprint available. PsyArxiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/qejga google scholar

9. Coetzee, V., Chen, J., Perrett, D. I., & Stephen, I. D. (2010). Deciphering faces: Quantifiable visual cues to weight. Perception, 39(1), 51-61. https://doi.org/10.1068/p6560 google scholar
10. Du, S., Tao, Y., & Martinez, A. M. (2014). Compound facial expressions of emotion. Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences, 111(15), E1454-E1462. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322355111 google scholar
11. Eisenbruch, A. B., Lukaszewski, A. W., Simmons, Z. L., Arai, S., & Roney, J. R. (2018). Why the wide face? Androgen receptor gene polymorphism does not predict men’s facial width-to-height ratio. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology, 4, https://doi.org/138-151.10.1007/s40750-017-0084-x google scholar
12. Farkas, Leslie G. (1994). Anthropometry of the Head and Face. Raven Press. google scholar
13. Geniole, S. N., Denson, T. F., Dixson, B. J., Carre, J. M., & McCormick, C. M. (2015). Evidence from meta-analyses of the facial width-to-height ratio as an evolved cue of threat. PloS One, 10(7), e0132726. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132726 google scholar
14. Haselhuhn, M. P., Ormiston, M. E., & Wong, E. M. (2015). Men’s facial width-to-height ratio predicts aggression: A meta-analysis. PloS One, 10(4), e0122637. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0122637 google scholar
15. Hodges-Simeon, C. R., Hanson Sobraske, K. N., Samore, T., Gurven, M., & Gaulin, S. J. (2016). Facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR) is not associated with adolescent testosterone levels. PloS One, 11(4), e0153083. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153083 google scholar
16. Jack, R. E., & Schyns, P. G. (2015). The human face as a dynamic tool for social communication. Current Biology, 25(14), R621-R634. S0960-9822(15)00655-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.05.052 google scholar
17. Kordsmeyer, T. L., Freund, D., Pita, S. R., Jünger, J., & Penke, L. (2019). Further evidence that facial width-to-height ratio and global facial masculinity are not positively associated with testosterone levels. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology, 5, 117-130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-018-0105-4 google scholar
18. Kosinski, M. (2017). Facial width-to-height ratio does not predict self-reported behavioral tendencies. Psychological Science, 28(11), 1675-1682. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617716929 google scholar
19. Kramer, R. S., Jones, A. L., & Ward, R. (2012). A Lack of Sexual Dimorphism in Width-to-Height Ratio in White European Faces Using 2D Photographs, 3D Scans, and Anthropometry. PLoS One, 7(8), e42705-e42705. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0042705 google scholar
20. Lefevre, C. E., & Lewis, G. J. (2014). Perceiving aggression from facial structure: further evidence for a positive association with facial width-to-height ratio and masculinity, but not for moderation by self-reported dominance. European Journal of Personality, 28(6), 530-537. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1942 google scholar
21. Lefevre, C. E., Etchells, P. J., Howell, E. C., Clark, A. P., & Penton-Voak, I. S. (2014). Facial width-to-height ratio predicts self-reported dominance and aggression in males and females, but a measure of masculinity does not. Biology Letters, 10(10), 20140729. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2014.0729 google scholar
22. Lefevre, C. E., Lewis, G. J., Perrett, D. I., & Penke, L. (2013). Telling facial metrics: facial width is associated with testosterone levels in men. Evolution and Human Behavior, 34(4), 273-279. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2013.03.005 google scholar
23. Lefevre, C., Lewis, G., Bates, T., Dzhelyova, M., Coetzee, V., Deary, I., & Perrett, D. (2012). No evidence for sexual dimorphism of facial width-to-height ratio in four large adult samples. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33, 623-627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2012.03.002. google scholar
24. Lolli, L., Batterham, A. M., Kratochvü, L., Flegr, J., Mills, J., & Hogan, K. M. (2020). CEO facial masculinity and firm financial outcomes. Corporate Board: Role, Duties and Composition, 16(1), 39-46. https://doi.org/10.22495/cbv16i1art4 google scholar
25. Ormiston, M. E., Wong, E. M., & Haselhuhn, M. P. (2017). Facial-width-to-height ratio predicts perceptions of integrity in males. Personality and Individual Differences, 105, 40-42. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.09.017 google scholar
26. Özener, B. (2012). Facial width-to-height ratio in a Turkish population is not sexually dimorphic and is unrelated to aggressive behavior. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33(3), 169-173. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.08.001 google scholar
27. Packard, G. C., & Boardman, T. J. (1988). The misuse of ratios, indices, and percentages in ecophysiological research. Physiological Zoology, 61, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1086/physzool.61.1.30163730 google scholar
28. R Core Team (2024). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www. R-project.org/ google scholar
29. Sarıbay, S. A. (2018). Yüz en-boy oranının psikolojik özellikler, sosyal davranış ve sosyal algıyla ilişkisi. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 21(41), 78-95. Accessed from: https://psikolog.org.tr/yayinlar/turk-psikoloji-yazilari google scholar
30. Todorov, A., Olivola, C. Y., Dotsch, R., & Mende-Siedlecki, P. (2015). Social attributions from faces: Determinants, consequences, accuracy, and functional significance. Annual Review of Psychology, 66(1), 519-545. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143831 google scholar
31. Trebicky, V., Fialova, J., Kleisner, K., & HavHcek, J. (2016). Focal length affects depicted shape and perception of facial images. PLoS One, 11(2), e0149313. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0149313 google scholar
32. Valentine, K. A., Li, N. P., Penke, L., & Perrett, D. I. (2014). Judging a man by the width of his face: The role of facial ratios and dominance in mate choice at speed-dating events. Psychological Science, 25(3), 806-811. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613511823 google scholar
33. Verdonck, A., M. Gaethofs, C. Carels, & F. de Zegher, (1999). Effect of low-Dose Testosterone Treatment on Craniofacial Growth in Boys with Delayed Puberty. European Journal of Orthodontics 21, no. 2: 137-143. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejo/21.2.137 google scholar
34. Weston, E. M., Friday, A. E., & Liö, P. (2007). Biometric evidence that sexual selection has shaped the hominin face. PLoS One, 2(8), e710. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000710 google scholar
35. Weston, K. L., & Atkinson, G. (2017). A comprehensive allometric analysis of 2nd digit length to 4th digit length in humans. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 284(1857), 20170356. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.0356 google scholar
36. Wickham H., François R., Henry L., Müller K., Vaughan D. (2023). dplyr: A Grammar of Data Manipulation. R package version 1.1.4, https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=dplyr. google scholar
37. Wickham, H. (2016) ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis. Springer-Verlag, New York. google scholar
38. Willis, J., & Todorov, A. (2006). First impressions: Making up your mind after a 100-ms exposure to a face. Psychological Science, 17(7), 592-598. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.0175 google scholar
39. Windhager, S., Schaefer, K., & Fink, B. (2011). Geometric morphometrics of male facial shape in relation to physical strength and perceived attractiveness, dominance, and masculinity. American Journal of Human Biology, 23(6), 805-814. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.21219 google scholar
40. Zeileis A., Torsten H. (2002). Diagnostic Checking in Regression Relationships. R News 2(3), 7-10. https://CRAN.R-project.org/doc/Rnews/ google scholar