Research Article
BibTex RIS Cite

Random Developmental Variation of Human Phenotypic Traits, as Estimated by Fluctuating Asymmetry and Twin Studies

Year 2021, Issue: 1, 1 - 10, 31.12.2021
https://doi.org/10.26650/IAR2021-1312

Abstract

Random developmental variation, or developmental noise, contributes to total phenotypic variation in the human species. Despite exhortations to examine it, especially with respect to human behavior and intelligence, there has been little research specifically devoted to doing so. Random developmental variation can be estimated in studies of fluctuating asymmetry and comparisons of monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Estimation of random developmental variation requires that both genotype and environment be held constant. In a small sample of bilaterally symmetrical traits (dermatoglyphic ridge counts, digit lengths, ear lengths and widths), I show how the random developmental component can be estimated. In these traits, the percentage of total phenotypic variation attributable to developmental noise ranges from 3 percent to more than 25 percent. Moreover, for dermatoglyphic ridge counts, fluctuating asymmetry and twin comparisons give essentially the same estimates.

References

  • Bird, K. A. (2021). No support for the hereditarian hypothesis of the Black-White achievement gap using polygenic scores and tests for divergent selection. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 2021, 1-12. google scholar
  • Danforth, C. H. (1919). Resemblance and difference in twins: twins that look and act alike attract attention first, while dissimilar ones are apt to be overlooked. Journal of Heredity, 10, 399-409. google scholar
  • Elowitz, M. B., Levine, A. J., Siggia, E. D., & Swain, P. S. (2002). Stochastic gene expression in a single cell. Science, 297, 1183-1186. google scholar
  • Falconer, D. S., & Mackay, T. F. C. (1996). Introduction to quantitative genetics (4th edition). Harlow, Essex, UK: Longman. google scholar
  • Finch, C. E., & Kirkwood, T. B. L. (2000). Chance, development, and aging. New York: Oxford University Press. google scholar
  • Friedman, N. P., Banich, M. T., & Keller, M. C. (2021). Twin studies to GWAS: there and back again. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.06.007 google scholar
  • Gartner, K. (1990). A third component causing random variability beside environment and genotype. A reason for the limited success of a 30 year long effort to standardize laboratory animals? Laboratory Animals, 24, 71-77. google scholar
  • Graham, J. H. (2020). Fluctuating asymmetry and developmental instability, a guide to best practice. Symmetry, 13, 9. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym13010009 google scholar
  • Graham, J. H. (2021). Nature, nurture, and noise: Developmental instability, fluctuating asymmetry, and the causes of phenotypic variation. Symmetry, 13, 1204. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym13071204 google scholar
  • Graham, J. H., Emlen, J. M., & Freeman, D. C. (1993). Antisymmetry, directional asymmetry, and dynamic morphogenesis. Genetica, 89, 121-137. google scholar
  • Graham, J. H., Emlen, J. M., & Freeman, D. C. (2003). Nonlinear dynamics and developmental instability. In M. Polak (Ed.), Developmental instability: Causes and consequences (pp. 35-50). New York: Oxford University Press. google scholar
  • Graham, J. H., Emlen, J. M., Freeman, D. C., Leamy, L. J., & Kieser, J. A. (1998) Directional asymmetry and the measurement of developmental instability. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 64, 1-16. google scholar
  • Graham, J. H., & Özener, B. (2016). Fluctuating asymmetry of human populations: A review. Symmetry, 8, 154. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym8120154 google scholar
  • Graham, J. H., Raz, S., Hel-Or, H., & Nevo, E. (2010). Fluctuating asymmetry: methods, theory, and applications. Symmetry, 2, 466-540. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym2020466 google scholar
  • Holt, S. B. (1952). The genetics of dermal ridges: Bilateral asymmetry in finger ridge-counts. Annals of Eugenics, 17, 211-231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1809.1952.tb02513.x google scholar
  • Jolicoeur, P. (1963). Bilateral symmetry and asymmetry in limb bones of Martes americana and man. Revue Canadienne de Biologie, 22, 409-432. google scholar
  • Kozhara, A. V. (1989). On the ratio of components of phenotypic variances of bilateral characters in populations of some fishes. Genetika, 25, 1508-1513. google scholar
  • Kozhara, A. V. (1994). Phenotypic variance of bilateral characters as an indicator of genetic and environmental conditions in bream Abramis brama (L.) (Pisces, Cyprinidae) populations. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 10, 167-181. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0426.1994.tb00156.x google scholar
  • Lajus, D. L, Graham, J. H., & Kozhara, A. V. (2003). Developmental instability and the stochastic component of total phenotypic variance. In M. Polak (Ed.), Developmental instability: Causes and consequences (pp. 343-363). New York: Oxford University Press. google scholar
  • Leamy, L. (1984). Morphometric studies in inbred and hybrid house mice. V. Directional and fluctuating asymmetry. American Naturalist, 123, 579-593. https://doi.org/10.1086/284225 google scholar
  • Lee, J. J., Wedow, R., ... & Cesarini, D. (2018). Gene discovery and polygenic prediction from a genome-wide association study of educational attainment in 1.1 million individuals. Nature Genetics, 50, 1112-1121. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-018-0147-3 google scholar
  • Özener, B., & Graham, J. H. (2014). Growth and fluctuating asymmetry of human newborns: Influence of inbreeding and parental education. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 153, 45-51. google scholar
  • Palmer, A. R., & Strobeck, C. (1986). Fluctuating asymmetry: measurement, analysis, patterns. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 17, 391-421. google scholar
  • Pinker, S. (2003). The blank slate: The modern denial of human nature: New York, NY: Penguin. google scholar
  • Pinker, S. (2004). Why nature & nurture won’t go away. Daedalus, 133, 5-17. google scholar
  • Plomin, R., & Loehlin, J. C. (1989). Direct and indirect IQ heritability estimates: a puzzle. Behavior Genetics, 19, 331-342. google scholar
  • Rao, D., Morton, N., Lalouel, J., & Lew, R. (1982). Path analysis under generalized assortative mating: II. American IQ. Genetics Research, 39, 187-198. google scholar
  • Raser, J. M., & O’Shea, E. K. (2005). Noise in gene expression: origins, consequences, and control. Science, 309, 2010-2013. google scholar
  • Robin, E. D., & Wong, R. (1988). Mitochondrial DNA molecules and virtual number of mitochondria per cell in mammalian cells. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 136, 507-513. https://doi.org/10.1002/ jcp.1041360316 google scholar
  • Schroeder, M. (1990). Fractals, chaos, power laws: Minutes from an infinite paradise. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman. google scholar
  • Shen, H., & Feldman, M. W. (2020). Genetic nurturing, missing heritability, and causal analysis in genetic statistics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117, 25646- 25654. https://doi. org/10.1073/pnas.2015869117 google scholar
  • Tashman, L. J. & Lamborn, K. R. (1979). Ways and means of statistics. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich google scholar
  • Tzagoloff, A. (2012). Mitochondria. London: Springer Science & Business Media. google scholar
  • Williams, G. P. (1997). Chaos theory tamed. Washington, D. C.: Joseph Henry Press. google scholar
  • Wolfe, S. L. (1993). Molecular cell biology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. google scholar
  • Wright, S. (1920). The relative importance of heredity and environment in determining the piebald pattern of guinea-pigs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 6, 320-332. google scholar
  • Zheng, Z. & Cohn, M. J. (2011). Developmental basis of sexually dimorphic digit ratios. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 16289-16294. google scholar

Random Developmental Variation of Human Phenotypic Traits, as Estimated by Fluctuating Asymmetry and Twin Studies

Year 2021, Issue: 1, 1 - 10, 31.12.2021
https://doi.org/10.26650/IAR2021-1312

Abstract

Random developmental variation, or developmental noise, contributes to total phenotypic variation in the human species. Despite exhortations to examine it, especially with respect to human behavior and intelligence, there has been little research specifically devoted to doing so. Random developmental variation can be estimated in studies of fluctuating asymmetry and comparisons of monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Estimation of random developmental variation requires that both genotype and environment be held constant. In a small sample of bilaterally symmetrical traits (dermatoglyphic ridge counts, digit lengths, ear lengths and widths), I show how the random developmental component can be estimated. In these traits, the percentage of total phenotypic variation attributable to developmental noise ranges from 3 percent to more than 25 percent. Moreover, for dermatoglyphic ridge counts, fluctuating asymmetry and twin comparisons give essentially the same estimates.

References

  • Bird, K. A. (2021). No support for the hereditarian hypothesis of the Black-White achievement gap using polygenic scores and tests for divergent selection. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 2021, 1-12. google scholar
  • Danforth, C. H. (1919). Resemblance and difference in twins: twins that look and act alike attract attention first, while dissimilar ones are apt to be overlooked. Journal of Heredity, 10, 399-409. google scholar
  • Elowitz, M. B., Levine, A. J., Siggia, E. D., & Swain, P. S. (2002). Stochastic gene expression in a single cell. Science, 297, 1183-1186. google scholar
  • Falconer, D. S., & Mackay, T. F. C. (1996). Introduction to quantitative genetics (4th edition). Harlow, Essex, UK: Longman. google scholar
  • Finch, C. E., & Kirkwood, T. B. L. (2000). Chance, development, and aging. New York: Oxford University Press. google scholar
  • Friedman, N. P., Banich, M. T., & Keller, M. C. (2021). Twin studies to GWAS: there and back again. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.06.007 google scholar
  • Gartner, K. (1990). A third component causing random variability beside environment and genotype. A reason for the limited success of a 30 year long effort to standardize laboratory animals? Laboratory Animals, 24, 71-77. google scholar
  • Graham, J. H. (2020). Fluctuating asymmetry and developmental instability, a guide to best practice. Symmetry, 13, 9. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym13010009 google scholar
  • Graham, J. H. (2021). Nature, nurture, and noise: Developmental instability, fluctuating asymmetry, and the causes of phenotypic variation. Symmetry, 13, 1204. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym13071204 google scholar
  • Graham, J. H., Emlen, J. M., & Freeman, D. C. (1993). Antisymmetry, directional asymmetry, and dynamic morphogenesis. Genetica, 89, 121-137. google scholar
  • Graham, J. H., Emlen, J. M., & Freeman, D. C. (2003). Nonlinear dynamics and developmental instability. In M. Polak (Ed.), Developmental instability: Causes and consequences (pp. 35-50). New York: Oxford University Press. google scholar
  • Graham, J. H., Emlen, J. M., Freeman, D. C., Leamy, L. J., & Kieser, J. A. (1998) Directional asymmetry and the measurement of developmental instability. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 64, 1-16. google scholar
  • Graham, J. H., & Özener, B. (2016). Fluctuating asymmetry of human populations: A review. Symmetry, 8, 154. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym8120154 google scholar
  • Graham, J. H., Raz, S., Hel-Or, H., & Nevo, E. (2010). Fluctuating asymmetry: methods, theory, and applications. Symmetry, 2, 466-540. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym2020466 google scholar
  • Holt, S. B. (1952). The genetics of dermal ridges: Bilateral asymmetry in finger ridge-counts. Annals of Eugenics, 17, 211-231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1809.1952.tb02513.x google scholar
  • Jolicoeur, P. (1963). Bilateral symmetry and asymmetry in limb bones of Martes americana and man. Revue Canadienne de Biologie, 22, 409-432. google scholar
  • Kozhara, A. V. (1989). On the ratio of components of phenotypic variances of bilateral characters in populations of some fishes. Genetika, 25, 1508-1513. google scholar
  • Kozhara, A. V. (1994). Phenotypic variance of bilateral characters as an indicator of genetic and environmental conditions in bream Abramis brama (L.) (Pisces, Cyprinidae) populations. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 10, 167-181. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0426.1994.tb00156.x google scholar
  • Lajus, D. L, Graham, J. H., & Kozhara, A. V. (2003). Developmental instability and the stochastic component of total phenotypic variance. In M. Polak (Ed.), Developmental instability: Causes and consequences (pp. 343-363). New York: Oxford University Press. google scholar
  • Leamy, L. (1984). Morphometric studies in inbred and hybrid house mice. V. Directional and fluctuating asymmetry. American Naturalist, 123, 579-593. https://doi.org/10.1086/284225 google scholar
  • Lee, J. J., Wedow, R., ... & Cesarini, D. (2018). Gene discovery and polygenic prediction from a genome-wide association study of educational attainment in 1.1 million individuals. Nature Genetics, 50, 1112-1121. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-018-0147-3 google scholar
  • Özener, B., & Graham, J. H. (2014). Growth and fluctuating asymmetry of human newborns: Influence of inbreeding and parental education. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 153, 45-51. google scholar
  • Palmer, A. R., & Strobeck, C. (1986). Fluctuating asymmetry: measurement, analysis, patterns. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 17, 391-421. google scholar
  • Pinker, S. (2003). The blank slate: The modern denial of human nature: New York, NY: Penguin. google scholar
  • Pinker, S. (2004). Why nature & nurture won’t go away. Daedalus, 133, 5-17. google scholar
  • Plomin, R., & Loehlin, J. C. (1989). Direct and indirect IQ heritability estimates: a puzzle. Behavior Genetics, 19, 331-342. google scholar
  • Rao, D., Morton, N., Lalouel, J., & Lew, R. (1982). Path analysis under generalized assortative mating: II. American IQ. Genetics Research, 39, 187-198. google scholar
  • Raser, J. M., & O’Shea, E. K. (2005). Noise in gene expression: origins, consequences, and control. Science, 309, 2010-2013. google scholar
  • Robin, E. D., & Wong, R. (1988). Mitochondrial DNA molecules and virtual number of mitochondria per cell in mammalian cells. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 136, 507-513. https://doi.org/10.1002/ jcp.1041360316 google scholar
  • Schroeder, M. (1990). Fractals, chaos, power laws: Minutes from an infinite paradise. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman. google scholar
  • Shen, H., & Feldman, M. W. (2020). Genetic nurturing, missing heritability, and causal analysis in genetic statistics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117, 25646- 25654. https://doi. org/10.1073/pnas.2015869117 google scholar
  • Tashman, L. J. & Lamborn, K. R. (1979). Ways and means of statistics. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich google scholar
  • Tzagoloff, A. (2012). Mitochondria. London: Springer Science & Business Media. google scholar
  • Williams, G. P. (1997). Chaos theory tamed. Washington, D. C.: Joseph Henry Press. google scholar
  • Wolfe, S. L. (1993). Molecular cell biology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. google scholar
  • Wright, S. (1920). The relative importance of heredity and environment in determining the piebald pattern of guinea-pigs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 6, 320-332. google scholar
  • Zheng, Z. & Cohn, M. J. (2011). Developmental basis of sexually dimorphic digit ratios. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 16289-16294. google scholar
There are 37 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Anthropology
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

John H. Graham This is me 0000-0003-1974-132X

Publication Date December 31, 2021
Published in Issue Year 2021 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Graham, J. H. (2021). Random Developmental Variation of Human Phenotypic Traits, as Estimated by Fluctuating Asymmetry and Twin Studies. Istanbul Anthropological Review(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.26650/IAR2021-1312