Are Work Attitudes of Generations Myth or Real? Evidence from the United States and Turkey

Year 2020, , 248 - 270, 30.11.2020

Sait Gurbuz Ihsan Aytekin

https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2020.49.0031

Abstract

Despite the increased attention paid to generational differences especially from practitioners and the popular press, systematic and empirical intergenerational research has been scarce, is largely North American centric, and lacks consistent results. The present study aimed to fill this gap by examining whether differences exist among generations in their key work and organizational attitudes, personal values, and work ethic values in the United States and Turkey. Survey data were gathered from 1019 employees (427 from the U.S. and 592 from Turkey). We found little evidence supporting substantive and significant generational differences or their association with key outcome variables. Furthermore, the U.S. originated classification of generations cannot be generalized to the Turkish business context.

Keywords

Generational differences, Work attitudes, Work ethics, Cohorts

Supporting Institution

This work was supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) under Grant 2219.

Project Number

Grant 2219

Thanks

The authors would likThe authors would like to thank Prof. Robert Costigan for data collection and his helpful comments on earlier draft of this manuscript.e to thank Prof. Robert Costigan for data collection and his helpful coThe authors would like to thank Prof. Robert Costigan for data collection and his helpful comments on earlier draft of this manuscript.mments on earlier draft of this manuscript.

References

• Appelbaum, S., Serena, M., & Shapiro, B. (2005). Generation “X and the boomers: An analysis of realities and myths, Management Research News, 28, 1–33.
• Arthur, M. B., & Rousseau, D. M. (1994). Introduction: The boundaryless career as a new employment principle, in M.B. Arthur, & D.M. Rousseau, D.M., Ed. The boundaryless career: A new employment principle for a new organizational era, Oxford University Press. 3-20.
• Barkey, H. J. (2019). The state and the industrialization crisis in Turkey, Routledge, New York.
• Barnet, R. J., & Cavanaugh, J. (1994). Global Dreams: Imperial Corporations and the New World Order. New York: Simon and Schuster,
• Benson, J., & Brown, M. (2011). Generations at work: are there differences and do they matter. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22, 1843–1865.
• Blau, G., & Ryan, J. (1997). On measuring work ethic: A neglected work commitment facet, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51, 435–448.
• Brayfield, A. H., & Rothe, H. F. (1951). An index of job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 3, 307–311.
• Burke, M. E. (2005), SHRM Generational Differences Survey Report: A Study by the Society for Human Resource Management, Alexandria, VA: Society for Human Resource Management.
• Cennamo, L., & Gardner, D. (2008). Generational differences in work values, outcomes and person-organization values fit. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23, 891–906.
• Choi, D., Oh, I. S., & Colbert, A. E. (2015). Understanding organizational commitment: A meta-analytic examination of the roles of the five-factor model of personality and culture. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(5), 1542–1567.
• Cogin, J. (2012). Are generational differences in work values fact or fiction? Multi-country evidence and implications. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23, 2268–2294.
• Costanza, D. P., & Finkelstein, L. M. (2015). Generationally based differences in the workplace: Is there a there there? Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 8(3), 1–27.
• Costanza, D. P., Fraser, R. L., Badger, J. M., Severt, J. B., & Gade, P. A. (2012). Generational differences in work-related variables: A meta-analysis. Journal of Business Psychology, 27, 375–394.
• Crumpacker, M., & Crumpacker, J.M. (2007). Succession planning and generational stereotypes: should hr consider age-based values and attitudes a relevant factor or a passing fad? Public Personnel Management, 36, 349–369.
• Daboval, J. (1998), A comparison between baby boomers and generation X employees’ bases and foci of commitment, doctoral dissertation, Nova South Eastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL.
• Egri, C. P. & Ralston, D. A. (2004). Generation cohorts and personal values: A comparison of China and the United States. Organization Science, 15, 210–220.
• Erikson, E. (1997). The life cycle completed, New York: W.W. Norton.
• Ferres, N., Travaglione, A., & Firns, I. (2003). Attitudinal differences between generation-X and older employees. International Journal of Organizational Behavior, 6, 320-333.
• Furnham, A. (1990). A content, correlational, and factor analytic study of seven questionnaire measures of the Protestant work ethic. Human Relations, 43, 383–399.
• Giancola, F. (2006). The generation gap: More myth than reality?. Human Resource Planning, 29, 32–37.
• Gurbuz, S. (2009). Some possible antecedents of military personnel organizational citizenship behavior. Military Psychology, 21, 200–215.
• Gurbuz, S. (2015). Kuşak farklılıkları: Mit mi, gerçek mi? (Generational differences: a myth or reality? İş ve İnsan Dergisi (The Journal of Work and Human), 2, 39–57.
• Gurbuz, S., & Şahin, F. (2018). Sosyal bilimlerde araştırma yöntemleri-feselefe-yöntem-analiz (5.Baskı) Ankara: Seçkin.
• Gürbüz, S. & Yıldırım-Bozkurt, H. (2019). Working in the hangar: The impact of psychological capital on work outcomes among army aircraft mechanics. Military Psychology, 31(1), 60–70.
• Hess, N., & Jepsen, D. M. (2009). Career stage and generational differences in psychological contracts. Career Development International, 14 (3), 261–283.
• Hirsch, P. M., & Shanley, M. (1996). The rhetoric of boundaryless – or, how the newly empowered managerial class bought into its own marginalisation. In M.B. Arthur & D.M. Rousseau (Eds.) The boundaryless career: A new employment principle for a new organizational era (pp.218–234). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
• Hofstede, G. (1984). Cultural dimensions in management and planning. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 1(2), 81–99.
• Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw Hill.
• Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and postmodernization: cultural, economic, and political change in 43 societies, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (2015). LISREL 9.20 for Windows [Computer software]. Skokie, IL: Scientific Software International, Inc.
• Jorgensen, B. (2003). Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y: Policy implications for defence forces in the modern era. Foresight, 5, 41–49.
• Jurkiewicz, C. E. & Brown, R. G. (1998). GenXers vs. Boomers vs Matures: Generational comparison of public employee motivation. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 18, 18–37.
• Kacmar, K. M., & Ferris, G. R. (1989). Theoretical and methodological considerations in the age-job satisfaction relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 201–207.
• Kim, H-J., Knight, D., & Crutsinger, C. (2009). Generation Y employees’ retail work experience: Mediating effect of job characteristics on job outcomes. Journal of Business Research, 62, 548–556.
• Kowske, B. J., Rasch, R., & Wiley, J. (2010). Millennials’ (lack of) attitude problem: An empirical examination of generational effects on work attitudes. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25, 265–279.
• Kupperschmidt, B. (2000). Multi-deneration employees: Strategies for effective management, Health Care Manager, 19, 65–76.
• LePine, J. A., Erez, A., & Johnson, D. E. (2002). A meta-analysis of the dimensionality of organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 52–65.
• Lester, S. W., Standifer, R. L, Schultz, N. J., & Windsor, J. M. (2012). Actual versus perceived generational differences at work: An empirical examination. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 19, 341–354.
• Locke, E. A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 1297–1349). Chicago: Rand McNally.
• Lub, X., Bijvank, M. N., Bal, P. M., Blomme, R., & Schalk, R. (2012). Different or alike? Exploring the psychological contract and commitment of different generations of hospitality workers. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 24, 553–573.
• Maguire, S.R. (1993). Employer and occupational tenure: An update. Monthly Labor Review, June, 45–56.
• Mannheim, K. (1952). The problem of generations. In K. Mannheim (Ed.), Essays on the Sociology of knowledge (pp. 276–322), London: Routledge.
• Martin, C. A. (2005). From high maintenance to high productivity: what managers need to know about generation Y. Industrial and Commercial Training, 37, 39–44.
• McGuire, D., Todnem, R., & Hutchings, K. (2007). Towards a model of human resource solutions for achieving intergenerational interaction in organizations. Journal of European Industrial Training, 31, 592–608.
• McMullin, J., Comeau, T., & Jovic, W. (2007). Generational affinities and discourses of difference: A case study of highly skilled information technology workers. British Journal of Sociology, 58, 297–316.
• Meglino, B. M., & Ravlin, E.C. (1998). Individual values in organizations: concepts, controversies, and research. Journal of Management, 24, 351–389.
• Meyer, J. P., Allen, N. J., & Smith, C. A. (1993). Commitment to organizations and occupation: Extensions and test of a three-component conceptualization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 538–551.
• Meyer, J. P., Stanley, D. J., Herscovitch, L., & Topolnytsky, L. (2002). Affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization: A meta-analysis of antecedents.
• Miller, M. J., Woehr, D. J., & Hudspeth, N. (2002). The meaning and measurement of work ethic: construction and initial validation of a multidimensional inventory. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 451–489.
• Myers, K., & Sadaghiani, K. (2010). Millennials in the workplace: A communication perspective on Millennials’ organizational relationships and performance. Journal of Business & Psychology, 25, 225–238.
• Nadler, D., & Tushman, M. (1980). A model for diagnosing organizational behavior. Organizational Dynamics, 9, 35–51.
• Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2008). The relationship of age to ten dimensions of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 392–422.
• Ng, T.W. H. & Feldman, D. C. (2010). The relationships of age with job attitudes: A metaanalysis. Personnel Psychology, 63, 677–718.
• Organ, D. W., Podsakoff, P. M., & MacKenzie, S. B. (2006). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature, antecedents, and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
• Parry, E., & Urwin, P. (2010). Generational differences in work values: A review of theory and evidence. International Journal of Management Reviews, 13, 79–96.
• Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2012). Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 539–569.
• Raineri, N., Paille, P., & Morin, D. (2012). Organizational citizenship behavior: An intergenerational study. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 25, 147–177.
• Robinson, S.L., & Morrison, E.W. (2000). The development of psychological contract breach and violation: a longitudinal study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 525-546.
• Robinson, S.L., & Rousseau, D.M. (1994). Violating the psychological contract: Not the exception but the norm. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15(3), 245–259.
• Schamm, J. (2004). Age groups mostly in accord. HR Magazine, 49, 208.
• Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Are there universal aspects in the content and structure of values? Journal of Social Issues, 50, 19–45.
• Schwartz, S. H., & Bardi, A. (2001). Value hierarchies across cultures: Taking a similarities perspective. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32, 268–290.
• Smith, C. A., Organ, D. W., & Near, J. P. (1983). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature and antecedents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 653–663.
• Spector, P. E. (2006). Method variance in organizational research: Truth or urban legend? Organizational Research Methods, 9, 21–232.
• Smola, K. W. & Sutton, C. D. (2002). Generational differences: revisiting generational work values for the new millennium, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 363–382.
• Steel, P., & Taras, V (2010). Culture as a consequence: A multi-level multivariate meta-analysis of the effects of individual and country characteristics on work-related cultural values. Journal of International Management, 16, 211–233.
• Turnley, W.H., & Feldman, D.C. (1999). The impact of psychological contract violations on exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect. Human Relation, 52(7), 895–922.
• TUİK: https://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/medas/?kn=72&locale=tr (Access date: 17.03.2020)
• Twenge, J. M. (2010). A review of empirical evidence on generational differences in work attitudes. Journal of Business Psychology, 25, 201–210.
• Twenge, J. M., Konrath, S., Foster, J. D., Campbell, W. K., & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Further evidence of an increase in narcissism among college students. Journal of Personality, 76, 919–927.
• Wallace, J. (2006). Work commitment in the legal profession: A study of baby boomers and generation Xers. International Journal of the Legal Profession, 13, 137–151.
• Wasti, S. A. (2003). Organizational commitment, turnover intentions and the influence of cultural values. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76(3), 303–321.
• Weber, M. (1958). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism (Translated by T. Parsons). New York: Scribner.
• Westerman, J. W., & Yamamura, J. H. (2007). Generational preferences for work environment fit: Effects on employee outcomes, Career Development International, 12, 150–161.
• Yu, H. & Miller, P. (2005). Leadership style: The X generation and baby boomers compared in different cultural contexts. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 26, 35–50.
• Youssef, C. M., & Luthans, F. (2007). Positive organizational behavior in the workplace: The impact of hope, optimism, and resilience. Journal of Management, 33, 774–800.