Integrated Assessment of Non-Edible Biodiesel Production and Engine Performance and Emission Landscape under Diesel/Biodiesel Blends via RSM

Arif Savaş; Samet Uslu

doi:10.30939/ijastech..1897071

Integrated Assessment of Non-Edible Biodiesel Production and Engine Performance and Emission Landscape under Diesel/Biodiesel Blends via RSM

Abstract

Nowadays, a large portion of energy is produced using diesel engines. Although they have many benefits, like long lifespans, great efficiency, and dependability, they also have serious drawbacks, including the depletion of fossil fuel supplies and the release of pollutants that are bad for the environment and human health. The purpose of this study was to reduce these drawbacks and assess the viability of an environmentally acceptable, sustainable alternative fuel. Biodiesel fuels were used in this case because they may be utilized in current diesel engines with little to no modification. Cottonseed biodiesel was chosen among the various forms of biodiesel because of its high production potential and the fact that it is not intended for direct human use. In a single-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine, fuel mixtures made by mixing cottonseed biodiesel with diesel fuel at volumetric percentages of 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% were tested under six distinct engine loads and at a constant speed of 3000 rpm. According to the experimental results, CO and HC emissions significantly decreased as the biodiesel ratio rose, but CO2 and NOx emissions increased. Additionally, because biodiesel has a reduced calorific value, BSFC increased but BTE decreased. Optimization studies were conducted using three different scenarios with RSM and experimental data. In the scenario where all output parameters were assumed to be equally important, the ideal biodiesel ratio was found to be 9.22% and the engine load to be 1451.71 W. Under these ideal conditions, NOx was 633.69 ppm, HC was 20.84 ppm, CO2 was 5.27%, CO was 0.028%, BTE was 19.87%, and BSFC was 411.41 g/kWh. The outcomes show that cottonseed biodiesel is a sustainable and eco-friendly substitute fuel that, when used properly, can lower emissions in diesel engines.

Keywords

References

[1] Şener R. Experimental and numerical analysis of a waste cooking oil biodiesel blend used in a CI engine. International Journal of Advances in Engineering and Pure Sciences. 2021;33:299–307. https://doi.org/10.7240/jeps.829006
[2] Kalender V, Bayer MU, Yavuz M, Yilmaz IT. Techno-economic and environmental assessment of an RCCI diesel engine fuelled with fusel oil addition. Processes. 2026;14:558. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14030558
[3] Bayer MU, Yilmaz İT, Vargün M, Kalender V, Çelik V. Investigation of the effects of hydrogen and ammonia addition on a marine auxiliary compression ignition engine. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2026;216:153770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2026.153770
[4] Elkelawy M, Aly Farag M, Seleem HE. Enhancing diesel engine power plant efficiency and cutting emissions with commercial fuel additives in generator systems. Pharos Engineering Science Journal. 2025;2:37–46. https://doi.org/10.21608/pesj.2025.352985.1012
[5] Savaş A, Uslu S, Şener R. Optimization of performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with MgCO3 nanoparticle doped second generation biodiesel from jojoba by using response surface methodology (RSM). Fuel. 2025;381:133658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2024.133658
[6] Savaş A, Bilgili L. Emission estimation of ship traffic in the Dardanelles. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University Journal of Marine Sciences and Fisheries. 2022;5:80–85. https://doi.org/10.46384/jmsf.1134339
[7] Küçüksarıyıldız H, Yaylalı Ç, Güney B. Investigation of the effect of internal combustion engine exhaust gases on workshop air quality and the importance of ventilation systems. International Journal of Automotive Science and Technology. 2025;9:618–625. https://doi.org/10.30939/ijastech..1813591
[8] Hassan QH, Al-Abboodi H. Experimental investigation of the impact of methanol-diesel blends on diesel engine emissions and performance. Combustion Engines. 2025;201(2):150–157. https://doi.org/10.19206/CE-204494

[9] Uslu S, Celik MB. Performance and exhaust emission prediction of a SI engine fueled with i-amyl alcohol-gasoline blends: An ANN coupled RSM based optimization. Fuel. 2020;265:116922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.116922
[10] Houghton-Alico D. Alcohol fuels: policies, production, and potential. Routledge; 2019.
[11] Osman AI, Nasr M, Lichtfouse E, Farghali M, Rooney DW. Hydrogen, ammonia and methanol for marine transportation. Environmental Chemistry Letters. 2024;22:2151–2158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-024-01757-9
[12] Dhamodaran G, Venugopal S, Seetharaman S, Palsami T. Comparative analysis of a diesel engine fueled with hydrogen-enriched nanoparticle-emulsified second-generation biodiesel. Fuel. 2026;409:137851. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2025.137851
[13] Rosha P, Kumar S, Senthil Kumar P, Kowthaman CN, Kumar Mohapatra S, Dhir A. Impact of compression ratio on combustion behavior of hydrogen enriched biogas-diesel operated CI engine. Fuel. 2022;310:122321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.122321
[14] Horoz E, Baydır ŞA. Engine speed-dependent NOx reduction behavior of safflower-sunflower biodiesel blends in an SCR-equipped diesel engine. Engineering Perspective. 2026;6(3):331–343. https://doi.org/10.64808/engineeringperspective.1894491
[15] Celik M, Bayindirli C, İlhak Mİ. Investigation of the performance and emissions of an engine operated with CeO2 nano additive doped biodiesel. International Journal of Automotive Science and Technology. 2022;6:113–119. https://doi.org/10.30939/ijastech..1063986
[16] Celik M, Bayındırlı C, Kuş R. Experimental investigation of effect of n-hexane addition in diesel and biodiesel fuels on performance and emissions characteristics. International Journal of Automotive Science and Technology. 2023;7:118–124. https://doi.org/10.30939/ijastech..1257614
[17] Krishnan R, S KM, Paramasivam P, Ayanie AG. Investigation of bamboo biodiesel performance in variable compression ratio engines. Energy Science & Engineering. 2025;13:5465–5481. https://doi.org/10.1002/ese3.70252
[18] Zhou G, Zhao X, Zhang Z, Liu Z, Dong S, Peng Q. Performance assessment of a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel in a plateau environment. Energies. 2025;18:1955. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18081955
[19] Simsek S. Effects of biodiesel obtained from canola, safflower oils and waste oils on the engine performance and exhaust emissions. Fuel. 2020;265:117026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.117026
[20] Yasin MHM, Paruka P, Mamat R, Yusop AF, Najafi G, Alias A. Effect of low proportion palm biodiesel blend on performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a diesel engine. Energy Procedia. 2015;75:92–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2015.07.145
[21] Lei T, Wang Z, Chang X, Lin L, Yan X, Sun Y, et al. Performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine running on optimized ethyl levulinate–biodiesel–diesel blends. Energy. 2016;95:29–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.11.059
[22] Asokan MA, Senthur Prabu S, Bade PKK, Nekkanti VM, Gutta SSG. Performance, combustion and emission characteristics of juliflora biodiesel fuelled DI diesel engine. Energy. 2019;173:883–892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.02.075
[23] Kumar P, Sharma MP, Dwivedi G. Impact of ternary blends of biodiesel on diesel engine performance. Egyptian Journal of Petroleum. 2016;25:255–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2015.06.010
[24] Srithar K, Arun Balasubramanian K, Pavendan V, Ashok Kumar B. Experimental investigations on mixing of two biodiesels blended with diesel as alternative fuel for diesel engines. Journal of King Saud University - Engineering Sciences. 2017;29:50–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksues.2014.04.008
[25] Ge S, Brindhadevi K, Xia C, Salah Khalifa A, Elfasakhany A, Unpaprom Y, et al. Enhancement of the combustion, performance and emission characteristics of spirulina microalgae biodiesel blends using nanoparticles. Fuel. 2022;308:121822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121822
[26] Savaş A, Uslu S, Kaya T. From waste to clean energy: multi-objective optimization of engine efficiency and emissions using waste plastic oil. International Journal of Automotive Engineering and Technologies. 2025;14:215–228. https://doi.org/10.18245/ijaet.1691757
[27] Shehata MS, Razek SMA. Experimental investigation of diesel engine performance and emission characteristics using jojoba/diesel blend and sunflower oil. Fuel. 2011;90:886–897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2010.09.011
[28] Tarabet L, Loubar K, Lounici MS, Hanchi S, Tazerout M. Eucalyptus biodiesel as an alternative to diesel fuel: Preparation and tests on DI diesel engine. BioMed Research International. 2012;2012:235485. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/235485
[29] Gumus M, Kasifoglu S. Performance and emission evaluation of a compression ignition engine using a biodiesel (apricot seed kernel oil methyl ester) and its blends with diesel fuel. Biomass and Bioenergy. 2010;34:134–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2009.10.029
[30] İlkılıç C, Çılğın E, Aydın H. Terebinth oil for biodiesel production and its diesel engine application. Journal of the Energy Institute. 2015;88:292–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2014.09.001
[31] Suvanjumrat C, Kongsarai K, Phong-arom P, Chumphong N, Promtong M, Priyadumkol J. Development and optimization of an electrohydrodynamic dehydrator using ANN-GA for improved energy performance. Results in Engineering. 2025;27:106049. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2025.106049
[32] Ajith BS, Manjunath Patel GC, Der O, Selvan CP, Samuel OD, Annadurai S, et al. Microwave-assisted transesterification of hybrid Garcinia gummi-gutta and Garcinia indica oils: Optimization using RSM and meta-heuristic algorithms for high-yield biodiesel production. Biomass and Bioenergy. 2025;202:108223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2025.108223
[33] Kumaran P, Natarajan S, Kumar SMP, Rashid M, Nithish S. Optimization of diesel engine performance and emissions characteristics with tomato seed blends and EGR using response surface methodology. International Journal of Automotive Science and Technology. 2023;7:223–233. https://doi.org/10.30939/ijastech..1326036
[34] Savaş A, Uslu S, Saral Ş. Enabling a sustainable diesel future: Emission control and performance enhancement with B2O3 nanoparticles via RSM optimization. International Journal of Automotive Science and Technology. 2025;9:174–185. https://doi.org/10.30939/ijastech..1679467
[35] Der O. Multi-output prediction and optimization of CO2 laser cutting quality in FFF-printed ASA thermoplastics using machine learning approaches. Polymers. 2025;17:1910. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17141910
[36] Basar G, Kahraman F, Der O. Multi-response optimization of drilling parameters in direct hot-pressed Al/B4C/SiC hybrid composites using Taguchi-based Entropy–CoCoSo method. Materials. 2025;18:4319. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18184319
[37] Mishra VK, Goswami R. A review of production, properties and advantages of biodiesel. Biofuels. 2018;9:273–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2017.1336350
[38] Eryilmaz T, Yesilyurt MK, Cesur C, Gokdogan O. Biodiesel production potential from oil seeds in Turkey. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2016;58:842–851. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.172
[39] Riaz T, Iqbal MW, Mahmood S, Yasmin I, Leghari AA, Rehman A, et al. Cottonseed oil: A review of extraction techniques, physicochemical, functional, and nutritional properties. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2023;63:1219–1237. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2021.1963206
[40] Mohamad M, Ngadi N, Wong SL, Jusoh M, Yahya NY. Prediction of biodiesel yield during transesterification process using response surface methodology. Fuel. 2017;190:104–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.10.123
[41] Yuksel S, Sirin TB, Ay M, Uçar M, Kurt M. A study on end mill tool geometry parameters for end milling of 316L: finite element analysis and response surface methodology optimization based on resultant cutting force. Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering. 2024;46:452. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40430-024-05027-1
[42] Canan A. Multi-purpose optimization with response surface methodology of plastic waste cables to clean energy with graphene nanoparticles. Journal of Environmental Management. 2025;391:126336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.126336
[43] Şirin TB, Der O, Kuş H, Avdan ÇG, Yüksel S, Etyemez A, et al. Optimization of end mill geometry for machining 1.2379 cold-work tool steel through hybrid RSM-ANN-GA coupled FEA approach. Machines. 2025;14:15. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines14010015
[44] Savaş A, Uslu S, Erorhan N. Next-generation cleaner and efficient diesel operation with Mn2O3 nanoparticles: Experimental insights and multiobjective RSM optimization. Next Energy. 2026;12:100630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxener.2026.100630
[45] Zhang Z, Wang T, Jia M, Wei Q, Meng X, Shu G. Combustion and particle number emissions of a direct injection spark ignition engine operating on ethanol/gasoline and n-butanol/gasoline blends with exhaust gas recirculation. Fuel. 2014;130:177–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.04.052
[46] Panchasara H, Ashwath N. Effects of pyrolysis bio-oils on fuel atomisation: A review. Energies. 2021;14:794. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14040794
[47] Liu Z, Li S, Zhang J, Wang Y, Dai Y, Niu L, et al. Solid fuel emissions of CO pollutants in iron ore sintering process: Generation, control, and challenges. Steel Research International. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1002/srin.202500677
[48] Mofijur M, Ahmed SF, Ahmed B, Mehnaz T, Mehejabin F, Shome S, et al. Impact of nanoparticle-based fuel additives on biodiesel combustion: An analysis of fuel properties, engine performance, emissions, and combustion characteristics. Energy Conversion and Management: X. 2024;21:100515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2023.100515
[49] Li R, Wang Z, Ni P, Zhao Y, Li M, Li L. Effects of cetane number improvers on the performance of diesel engine fuelled with methanol/biodiesel blend. Fuel. 2014;128:180–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.03.011
[50] Koç MA, Şener R. Prediction of emission and performance characteristics of reactivity-controlled compression ignition engine with the intelligent software based on adaptive neural-fuzzy and neural-network. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2021;318:128642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128642
[51] Kumar M, Ansari NA, Gautam R. Optimising CRDI engine performance using waste-derived biodiesel, bioethanol, and ceric oxide nanoparticles: An RSM approach for emission reduction and economic viability. Fuel. 2026;415:138435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2026.138435
[52] Tüccar G, Tosun E, Uludamar E. Investigations of effects of density and viscosity of diesel and biodiesel fuels on NOx and other emission formations. Academic Platform Journal of Engineering and Science. 2018;6:81–85. https://doi.org/10.21541/apjes.371015
[53] Savaş A, Şener R, Uslu S, Der O. Experimental study on performance and emission optimization of MgO nanoparticle-enriched 2nd generation biodiesel: A method for employing nanoparticles to improve cleaner diesel combustion. Journal of the Energy Institute. 2025;120:102024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2025.102024
[54] Venkatesan SP, Rahul R, Sabbharishi V, Purusothamand M, Ganesan S. Study of emission characteristics of a diesel engine run by fuel blends of diesel, jatropha biodiesel and cetane improver. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.02.404
[55] Nanda Behera B, Kumar Hotta T. Influence of copper oxide nanoparticles on the performance, emission, and combustion measures of a VCR engine using palm biodiesel blended with n-butanol: A combined experimental and ANN-GA-based study. Fuel. 2025;381:133504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2024.133504
[56] Dere C, Deniz C. Effect analysis on energy efficiency enhancement of controlled cylinder liner temperatures in marine diesel engines with model based approach. Energy Conversion and Management. 2020;220:113015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113015
[57] El-Shafay AS, Ağbulut Ü, Attia E-A, Touileb KL, Gad MS. Waste to energy: Production of poultry-based fat biodiesel and experimental assessment of its usability on engine behaviors. Energy. 2023;262:125457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.125457
[58] Sarıdemir S, Etem Gürel A, Ağbulut Ü, Bakan F. Investigating the role of fuel injection pressure change on performance characteristics of a DI-CI engine fuelled with methyl ester. Fuel. 2020;271:117634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.117634
[59] Afzal A, Soudagar MEM, Belhocine A, Kareemullah M, Hossain N, Alshahrani S, et al. Thermal performance of compression ignition engine using high content biodiesels: A comparative study with diesel fuel. Sustainability. 2021;13:7688. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13147688
[60] Feng Z, Zhang J, Gu J, Leng X, He Z, Nishida K. Improving biodiesel atomization performance in CI engines: A review of spray behavior, droplet impingement, and advanced techniques. Processes. 2025;13:2527. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13082527

Details

Primary Language

English

Subjects

Automotive Combustion and Fuel Engineering

Journal Section

Research Article

Authors

Arif Savaş ^*
0000-0002-1509-5183
Türkiye

Samet Uslu
0000-0001-9118-5108
Türkiye

Publication Date

May 14, 2026

Submission Date

February 24, 2026

Acceptance Date

May 13, 2026

Published in Issue

Year 2026 Volume: 10 Number: 2

DOI

https://doi.org/10.30939/ijastech..1897071

IZ

https://izlik.org/JA26TC75YJ

Cite

RIS / Bibtex

APA

Savaş, A., & Uslu, S. (2026). Integrated Assessment of Non-Edible Biodiesel Production and Engine Performance and Emission Landscape under Diesel/Biodiesel Blends via RSM. International Journal of Automotive Science And Technology, 10(2), 350-369. https://doi.org/10.30939/ijastech..1897071

AMA

1.Savaş A, Uslu S. Integrated Assessment of Non-Edible Biodiesel Production and Engine Performance and Emission Landscape under Diesel/Biodiesel Blends via RSM. IJASTECH. 2026;10(2):350-369. doi:10.30939/ijastech.1897071

Chicago

Savaş, Arif, and Samet Uslu. 2026. “Integrated Assessment of Non-Edible Biodiesel Production and Engine Performance and Emission Landscape under Diesel Biodiesel Blends via RSM”. International Journal of Automotive Science And Technology 10 (2): 350-69. https://doi.org/10.30939/ijastech. 1897071.

EndNote

Savaş A, Uslu S (May 1, 2026) Integrated Assessment of Non-Edible Biodiesel Production and Engine Performance and Emission Landscape under Diesel/Biodiesel Blends via RSM. International Journal of Automotive Science And Technology 10 2 350–369.

IEEE

[1]A. Savaş and S. Uslu, “Integrated Assessment of Non-Edible Biodiesel Production and Engine Performance and Emission Landscape under Diesel/Biodiesel Blends via RSM”, IJASTECH, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 350–369, May 2026, doi: 10.30939/ijastech..1897071.

ISNAD

Savaş, Arif - Uslu, Samet. “Integrated Assessment of Non-Edible Biodiesel Production and Engine Performance and Emission Landscape under Diesel Biodiesel Blends via RSM”. International Journal of Automotive Science And Technology 10/2 (May 1, 2026): 350-369. https://doi.org/10.30939/ijastech. 1897071.

JAMA

1.Savaş A, Uslu S. Integrated Assessment of Non-Edible Biodiesel Production and Engine Performance and Emission Landscape under Diesel/Biodiesel Blends via RSM. IJASTECH. 2026;10:350–369.

MLA

Savaş, Arif, and Samet Uslu. “Integrated Assessment of Non-Edible Biodiesel Production and Engine Performance and Emission Landscape under Diesel Biodiesel Blends via RSM”. International Journal of Automotive Science And Technology, vol. 10, no. 2, May 2026, pp. 350-69, doi:10.30939/ijastech. 1897071.

Vancouver

1.Arif Savaş, Samet Uslu. Integrated Assessment of Non-Edible Biodiesel Production and Engine Performance and Emission Landscape under Diesel/Biodiesel Blends via RSM. IJASTECH. 2026 May 1;10(2):350-69. doi:10.30939/ijastech. 1897071