A Review on the Phytochemical Properties, Antimicrobial Activity, and Medicinal Potential of the Geranium Genus

Abstract

Geranium is a botanically diverse genus with widespread traditional use, valued for its rich phytochemical profile, including flavonoids, tannins, phenolic acids, and essential oils. This review summarizes current findings on the phytochemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, and medicinal relevance of Geranium species. Compounds such as quercetin, kaempferol, geraniin, and proanthocyanidins are associated with strong antioxidant properties, promoting free radical scavenging and cellular protection. Furthermore, essential oils and extracts from species like G. robertianum and G. wallichianum exhibit significant antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and various fungi, including resistant strains. These effects are linked to secondary metabolites that disrupt membranes, inhibit microbial enzymes, and modulate oxidative stress. Ethnobotanical applications are increasingly supported by pharmacological data, highlighting their potential in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and veterinary fields. However, chemical variability due to geographic factors remains a challenge. Future research should prioritize compound isolation, in vivo studies, safety profiling, and advanced formulations. Given their bioactivity, low toxicity, and compatibility with modern technologies, Geranium species offer promising prospects for novel therapeutic developments.

Keywords

• Geranium
• biological activity
• essential oil
• secondary metabolites
• traditional medicine

References

1. Abraham, Y., & Elbaum, R. (2013). Hygroscopic movements in Geraniaceae: The structural variations that are responsible for coiling or bending. New Phytologist, 199(2), 584-594.
2. Akbarzadeh, M., Van Laere, K., De Keyser, E., Van Huylenbroeck, J., Werbrouck, S. P., & Dhooghe, E. (2024). Interspecific hardy Geranium progenies: Morphological characterization and genetic evaluation. Horticulturae, 10(7), 723.
3. Akdemir, Z.Ş., Tatlı, İ. İ., Saracoğlu, İ., İsmailoğlu, U. B., Şahin-Erdemli, İ., & Çalış, İ. (2001). Polyphenolic compounds from Geranium pratense and their free radical scavenging activities. Phytochemistry, 56(2), 189-193.
4. Almaz, Z. (2023). Enzyme inhibitory properties and antimicrobial activity of Geranium tuberosum methanol extract. Journal of the Institute of Science and Technology, 13(4), 2875-2882. https://doi.org/10.21597/jist.1289203
5. Alshehri, B. (2024). The Geranium genus: A comprehensive study on ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemical compounds, and pharmacological importance. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 31(4),103940.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2024.103940
6. Androutsopoulou, C., Christopoulou, S.D., Hahalis, P., Kotsalou, C., Lamari, F.N., & Vantarakis, A. (2021). Evaluation of essential oils and extracts of rose geranium and rose petals as natural preservatives in terms of toxicity, antimicrobial, and antiviral activity. Pathogens, 10(4), 494. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10040494
7. Anonymous. (n.d.). Geranium. Retrieved from https://bizimbitkiler.org.tr/v2/hiyerarsi.php?c=Geranium
8. Arokiyaraj, S., Stalin, A., Kannan, B.S., & Shin, H. (2020). Geranii Herba as a potential inhibitor of SARS-CoV-2 main 3CLpro, spike RBD, and regulation of unfolded protein response: An in silico approach. Antibiotics, 9(12), 863. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9120863

9. Ascacio-Valdés, J.A., Buenrostro-Figueroa, J.J., Aguilera-Carbo, A., Prado-Barragán, A., Rodríguez-Herrera, R., & Aguilar, C. N. (2011). Ellagitannins: Biosynthesis, biodegradation and biological properties. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 5(19), 4696–4703.
10. Ávila, M. B., de Lúcio, J.A.G., Mendoza, N.V., González, C.V., De la O Arciniega, M., & Vargas, G.A. (2013). Geranium species as antioxidants. In J.A. Morales-González (Ed.), Oxidative Stress and Chronic Degenerative Diseases – A Role for Antioxidants (pp. 113-129). InTech: Rijeka, Croatia.
11. Ay, E., Gezen, E. S., & Hüseyinoğlu, R. (2020). Comparison of total phenolic contents and antioxidant activities of different parts of the endemic plant Geranium ibericum subsp. jubatum. Journal of the Institute of Science and Technology, 10(1), 378-385.
12. Bate-Smith, E.C. (1962). The phenolic constituents of plants and their taxonomic significance. I. Dicotyledons. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 58(371), 95-173.
13. Ben Jemia, M., Aidi Wannes, W., Ouchikh, O., Bruno, M., & Kchouk, M.E. (2013). Antioxidant activity of Tunisian Geranium robertianum L. (Geraniaceae). Natural Product Research, 27(22), 2076-2083. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2013.782492
14. Bhawana, M., Prashant, S.P., & Deepak, P. (2023). Understanding the role of key metabolic genes, transcription factors, and trichome-related genes in terms of temperature-stress management techniques in the rose-scented geranium (Pelargonium graveolens) using transcriptomic analysis. Industrial Crops and Products, 199, 116673.
15. Bigos, M., Wasiela, M., Kalemba, D., & Sienkiewicz, M. (2012). Antimicrobial activity of geranium oil against clinical strains of Staphylococcus aureus. Molecules, 17(9), 10276-10291. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules170910276
16. Boukhatem, M., Kameli, A., & Saidi, F. (2013). Essential oil of Algerian rose-scented geranium (Pelargonium graveolens): Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity against food spoilage pathogens. Food Control, 34, 208-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.03.045
17. Boukhris, M., Simmonds, M., Sayadi, S., & Bouaziz, M. (2013). Chemical composition and biological activities of polar extracts and essential oil of rose‐scented geranium, Pelargonium graveolens. Phytotherapy Research, 27, 1220-1225. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.4853
18. Chung, A. P. Y., Ton, S. H., Gurtu, S., & Palanisamy, U. D. (2014). Ellagitannin geraniin supplementation ameliorates metabolic risks in high-fat diet-induced obese Sprague Dawley rats. Journal of Functional Foods, 9, 173-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2014.03.029
19. Coronado-López, S., Caballero-García, S., Aguilar-Luis, M. A., Mazulis, F., & del Valle-Mendoza, J. (2018). Antibacterial activity and cytotoxic effect of Pelargonium peltatum (geranium) against Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sanguinis. International Journal of Dentistry, 2018,2714350.https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2714350
20. Dos Santos, F.N., Fonseca, L.M., Jansen-Alves, C., Crizel, R.L., Pires, J. B., Kroning, I.S., & da Rosa Zavareze, E. (2024). Antimicrobial activity of geranium (Pelargonium graveolens) essential oil and its encapsulation in carioca bean starch ultrafine fibers by electrospinning. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 265, 130953.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.130953
21. Dumlupinar, B., Karatoprak, G.Ş., Demirci, B., Akkol, E. K., & Sobarzo-Sánchez, E. (2023). Antioxidant activity and chemical composition of geranium oil and its synergistic potential against pneumococci with various antibiotic combinations. Plants, 12(17),3080.https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12173080
22. El-Chaghaby, G.A., Mohammed, F.S., Rashad, S., Uysal, I., Koçer, O., Lekesiz, Ö., Doğan, M., Şabik, A. E., & Sevindik, M. (2024). Genus Hypericum: General properties, chemical contents and biological activities. Egyptian Journal of Botany, 64(1),1-26.
23. El-Lethy, S. R., Ayad, H. S., & Reda, F. (2011). Effect of riboflavin, ascorbic acid and dry yeast on vegetative growth, essential oil pattern and antioxidant activity of geranium (Pelargonium graveolens L.). American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences, 10(5), 781–786.
24. Ercil, D., Kaloga, M., Radtke, O.A., Sakar, M.K., Kiderlen, A.F., & Kolodziej, H. (2005). O-galloyl flavonoids from Geranium pyrenaicum and their in vitro antileishmanial activity. Turkish Journal of Chemistry, 29(4), 437-443.
25. Filippova, A., Szhenova, T., Golovina, N., Garnova, N., & Bokov, D. (2020). Standardization of geranium essential oil. Moscow University Chemistry Bulletin, 75, 200-206. https://doi.org/10.3103/S0027131420030037
26. Fiz, O., Vargas, P., Alarcón, M., Aedo, C., García, J., & Aldasoro, J. (2008). Phylogeny and historical biogeography of Geraniaceae in relation to climate changes and pollination ecology. Systematic Botany, 33, 326-342. https://doi.org/10.1600/036364408784571482
27. Funatogawa, K., Hayashi, S., Shimomura, H., Yoshida, T., Hatano, T., Yoshida, H., & Iinuma, M. (2004). Antibacterial activity of hydrolyzable tannins derived from medicinal plants against Helicobacter pylori. Microbiology and Immunology, 48(4), 251-261.
28. Gebarowska, E., Politowicz, J., & Szumny, A. (2017). Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Geranium robertianum L. essential oil. Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica, 74(2), 699-705.
29. Gilca, M., Tiplica, G.S., & Salavastru, C.M. (2018). Traditional and ethnobotanical dermatology practices in Romania and other Eastern European countries. Clinics in Dermatology, 36(3), 338-352.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.008
30. Granica, S., Piwowarski, J., & Kiss, A. (2015). Ellagitannins modulate the inflammatory response of human neutrophils ex vivo. Phytomedicine, 22(14),1215-1222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2015.10.004
31. Graça, V. C., Ferreira, I. C., Santos, P. F. (2016). Phytochemical composition and biological activities of Geranium robertianum L.: A review. Ind. Crops Prod. 87, 363-378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.04.058
32. Graça, V. C., Ferreira, I. C., & Santos, P. F. (2020). Bioactivity of the Geranium genus: A comprehensive review. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 26(16), 1838-1865.
33. Graça, V.C., Barros, L., Calhelha, R.C., Dias, M.I., Carvalho, A.M., Santos-Buelga, C., & Santos, P.F. (2016). Chemical characterization and bioactive properties of Geranium molle L.: From the plant to the most active extract and its phytochemicals. Food & Function, 7(5), 2204-2212. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6FO00172K
34. Graça, V. C., Barros, L., Calhelha, R. C., Dias, M. I., Ferreira, I. C., & Santos, P. F. (2017). Bio-guided fractionation of extracts of Geranium robertianum L.: Relationship between phenolic profile and biological activity. Industrial Crops and Products, 108,543-552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2017.06.058
35. Gurib-Fakim, A., 2006. Medicinal plants: Traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Mol. Asp. Med. 27(1), 1-93. Hammami, I., Triki, M.A., & Rebai, A. (2011). Chemical compositions, antibacterial and antioxidant activities of essential oil and various extracts of Geranium sanguineum L. flowers. Archives of Applied Science Research, 3(3), 135-144.
36. He, C., Chen, J., Liu, J., Li, Y., Zhou, Y., Mao, T., Li, Z., Qin, X., & Jin, S. (2022). Geranium wilfordii Maxim.: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, quality control and toxicology. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 285,114907.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2021.114907
37. Ibrahim, G.E., Metwally, S. A., Abo-Leila, B.H., & Mohamed, S. M. (2019). Effect of salinity and ascorbic acid on geranium volatile and antioxidant activity. Plant Archives, 19(Suppl. 2), 750-757.
38. Ishimaru, K., & Shimomura, K. (1995). Geranium thunbergii: In vitro culture and the production of geraniin and other tannins. In Medicinal and Aromatic Plants VIII (pp. 232-247). Springer: Berlin, Heidelberg.
39. Ismail, M., Ibrar, M., Iqbal, Z., Hussain, J., Hussain, H., Ahmed, M., & Choudhary, M. I. (2009). Chemical constituents and antioxidant activity of Geranium wallichianum. Records of Natural Products, 3(4), 193.
40. Ismail, M., Hussain, J., Khan, A.U., Khan, A.L., Ali, L., Khan, F.U., & Lee, I.J. (2012). Antibacterial, antifungal, cytotoxic, phytotoxic, insecticidal, and enzyme inhibitory activities of Geranium wallichianum. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2012, 305906. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/305906
41. Ivancheva, S., & Petrova, A. (2000). A chemosystematic study of eleven Geranium species. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 28(3), 255-260.
42. Kamel, M. M., Badr, A., Alkhalifah, D. H. M., Mahmoud, R., Khaled, E., Husseiny, S., & Hozzein, W. N. (2024). In-vitro evaluation of antimicrobial efficiency of geranium waste nanomaterial against Escherichia coli and Candida albicans as an alternative to traditional antimicrobials. Results in Chemistry, 12, 101900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rechem.2024.101900
43. Kim, H. S. (2016). The anti-melanogenic effect of Geranium krameri extract. Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology, 48(1), 72-76. https://doi.org/10.9721/KJFST.2016.48.1.72
44. Lee, E., Lee, S., & Lim, M. (2012). Antimicrobial and antioxidative activities of essential oil-Focused on palmarosa (Cymbopogon martini) and geranium (Pelargonium graveolens). Korean Journal of Food and Nutrition, 18, 136-143.
45. Leucuta, S., Vlase, L., Gocan, S., Radu, L., & Fodorea, C. (2005). Determination of phenolic compounds from Geranium sanguineum by HPLC. Journal of Liquid Chromatography & Related Technologies, 28(19), 3109-3117.
46. Li, Y., Zhang, Z. Y., Li, C., Liu, L.M., Zhang, Y.L., & Li, Y. (2017). Optimization of extraction process for total tannin from Geranium wilfordii Maxin. Acta Chinese Medicine, 32, 269-272. https://doi.org/10.16368/j.issn.16748999.2017.02.068
47. Lin, S., Wang, C., Lu, Y., Wu, W., & Hou, W. (2008). Antioxidant, anti-semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase, and anti-hypertensive activities of geraniin isolated from Phyllanthus urinaria. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 46(7), 2485-2492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2008.04.007
48. Mabberley, D. J. (1997). The plant-book: A portable dictionary of the vascular plants (1st ed., Vol. 19). Cambridge University Press.
49. Maldonado, P.D., Rivero-Cruz, I., Mata, R., & Pedraza-Chaverrí, J. (2005). Antioxidant activity of A-type proanthocyanidins from Geranium niveum (Geraniaceae). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53(6), 1996-2001.
50. Marcussen, T., & Meseguer, A.S. (2017). Species-level phylogeny, fruit evolution and diversification history of Geranium (Geraniaceae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 110, 134-149.
51. Masyita, A., Sari, R. M., Astuti, A.D., Yasir, B., Rumata, N. R., Emran, T.B., ... & Simal-Gandara, J. (2022). Terpenes and terpenoids as main bioactive compounds of essential oils, their roles in human health and potential application as natural food preservatives. Food chemistry: X, 13, 100217.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2022.100217
52. Mazzolai, B., Mariani, S., Ronzan, M., Cecchini, L., Fiorello, I., Cikalleshi, K., & Margheri, L. (2021). Morphological computation in plant seeds for a new generation of self-burial and flying soft robots. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 8, 797556.
53. Mohammed, F. S., Sevindik, M., Uysal, İ., Çesko, C., & Koraqi, H. (2024). Chemical composition, biological activities, uses, nutritional and mineral contents of cumin (Cuminum cyminum). Measurement: Food, 100157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meafoo.2024.100157
54. Mohammed, F. S., Sevindik, M., Uysal, I., Sevindik, E., & Akgül, H. (2022). A natural material for suppressing the effects of oxidative stress: Biological activities of Alcea kurdica. Biological Bulletin, 49(2), 59-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/S1062359022140102
55. Narnoliya, L., Jadaun, J., & Singh, S. (2019). The phytochemical composition, biological effects and biotechnological approaches to the production of high-value essential oil from geranium. In Essential Oil Research (pp. 327-352). Springer: Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16546-8_12
56. Neagu, E., Paun, G., Constantin, D., & Radu, G. L. (2017). Cytostatic activity of Geranium robertianum L. extracts processed by membrane procedures. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 10, S2547-S2553.
57. Oh, J. Y., Lee, K. J., Wei, B., Roh, J. H., Kang, M., Cha, S. Y., & Jang, H. K. (2015). Antibacterial activities of bark extracts from Fraxinus rhynchophylla Hance and Geranium koreanum Kom. against clinical strains of Clostridium perfringens in chickens. Korean Journal of Veterinary Research, 55(2), 117-123.
58. Okuda, T., Yoshida, T., & Nayeshiro, H. (1977). Constituents of Geranium thunbergii SIEB. et Zucc. IV. Ellagitannins (2). Structure of geraniin. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 25(8), 1862-1869. https://doi.org/10.1248/cpb.25.1862
59. Okuda, T., Mori, K., & Hatano, T. (1980). The distribution of geraniin and mallotusinic acid in the order Geraniales. Phytochemistry, 19(4), 547–551.https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(80)87012-9
60. Ooshiro, A., Hiradate, S., Kawano, S., Takushi, T., Fujii, Y., Natsume, M., & Abe, H. (2009). Identification and activity of ethyl gallate as an antimicrobial compound produced by Geranium carolinianum. Weed Biology and Management, 9(2), 169-172. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1445-6664.2009.00334.x
61. Ozer, O. C., Orhan, I.E., Çalışkan, B., Senol Deniz, F.S., Gokbulut, A., Gur Maz, T., Aysal, A., Emerce, E., Shekfeh, S., Kahraman, A., & Banoglu, E. (2021). Exploration of anti-tyrosinase effect of Geranium glaberrimum Boiss. & Heldr. with in silico approach and survey of 21 Geranium species. Journal of Herbal Medicine, 27,100431.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hermed.2021.100431
62. Özüpek, B., Kaplan, N.A., Gok, H. N., Kahraman, A., Orhan, D. D., Şenol Deniz, F. S., & Orhan, I. E. (2024). Enzyme inhibitory activities and RP-HPLC analysis of Geranium and Erodium species. Chemistry & Biodiversity, e202401619. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.202401619
63. Palanisamy, U., Manaharan, T., Teng, L. L., Radhakrishnan, A. K., Subramaniam, T., & Masilamani, T. (2011). Rambutan rind in the management of hyperglycemia. Food Research International, 44(7), 2278-2282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.01.048
64. Pavlova, E., Simeonova, L., & Serkedjieva, J. (2019). Antioxidant activities of Geranium sanguineum L. polyphenolic extract in chemiluminescent model systems. Inorganic Chemistry Communications, 108, 107518. Pedro, L. G., Pais, M. S. S., & Scheffer, J. J. (1992). Composition of the essential oil of Geranium robertianum L. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 7(4), 223–226.
65. Perera, A., Ton, S.H., & Palanisamy, U.D. (2015). Perspectives on geraniin, a multifunctional natural bioactive compound. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 44(2), 243-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2015.04.010
66. Piwowarski, J. P., Granica, S., Zwierzynska, M., Stefanska, J., Schopohl, P., Melzig, M. F., & Kiss, A. K. (2014). Role of human gut microbiota metabolism in the anti-inflammatory effect of traditionally used ellagitannin-rich plant materials. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 155, 801–809.
67. Radulović, N., Dekić, M., & Stojanović-Radić, Z. (2012). Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the volatile oils of Geranium sanguineum L. and G. robertianum L. (Geraniaceae). Medicinal Chemistry Research, 21, 601–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00044-011-9576-5
68. Ravina, E. (2011). The evolution of drug discovery: From traditional medicines to modern drugs. John Wiley & Sons.
69. Renda, G., Celik, G., Korkmaz, B., Karaoğlu, S. A., & Yaylı, N. (2016). Baş boşluğu SPME ve hidrodistilasyon ile altı Geranium L. türünün antimikrobiyal aktivitesi ve analizleri. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 19(8), 2003–2016. https://doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2016.1235995
70. Sabuncuoğlu, S., & Şöhretoğlu, D. (2012). Evaluation of antihemolytic and antioxidant activities of Geranium tuberosum subsp. tuberosum with in vitro models. Pharmaceutical Biology, 50(11), 1374–1379. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2012.675340
71. Seğmenoğlu, M. S., Koçer, O., Sevindik, M., Korkmaz, N., Yüzbaşioğlu, M. A., Uysal, I. (2024). Antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antialzheimer activities of Tagetes patula (Asteraceae). Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi Tarım ve Doğa Dergisi, 27(Suppl 1), 205-212. https://doi.org/10.18016/ksutarimdoga.1455020
72. Shim, J.U., & Lim, K.T. (2009). Antioxidative activity of glycoprotein isolated from Geranium sibiricum Linne. Natural Product Research, 23(4), 375-387.
73. Sim, M. O., Jang, J. H., Lee, H. E., Jung, H. K., & Cho, H. W. (2017). Antioxidant effects of Geranium nepalense ethanol extract on H₂O₂-induced cytotoxicity in H9c2, SH-SY5Y, BEAS-2B, and HEK293. Food Science and Biotechnology, 26, 1045-1053.
74. Stafford, P. J., & Blackmore, S. (1991). Geraniaceae. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 69(1-3), 49-78. Şöhretoğlu, D., Genç, Y., & Harput, Ş. (2017). Comparative evaluation of phenolic profile, antioxidative and cytotoxic activities of different Geranium species. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 16(Suppl), 178.
75. Şöhretoğlu, D., Sakar, M. K., Sabuncuoğlu, S. A., Özgüneş, H., & Sterner, O. (2009). Antioxidant galloylated flavonoids from Geranium tuberosum L. subsp. tuberosum. Turkish Journal of Chemistry, 33(5), 685-692.
76. Şöhretoğlu, D., Sakar, M. K., & Sterner, O. (2011). Polyphenolic compounds from Geranium purpureum Vill. growing in Turkey. Turkish Journal of Chemistry, 35(5), 809-814.
77. Taşkın, T., & Taşkın, D. (2017). In vitro anti-urease, antioxidant activities and phytochemical composition of Geranium purpureum. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization, 11, 2102-2109.
78. Tuominen, A., Toivonen, E., Mutikainen, P., & Salminen, J. P. (2013). Defensive strategies in Geranium sylvaticum. Part 1: Organ-specific distribution of water-soluble tannins, flavonoids and phenolic acids. Phytochemistry, 95, 394-407.
79. Ueno, H., Horie, S., Nishi, Y., Shogawa, H., Kawasaki, M., Suzuki, S., Hayashi, T., Arisawa, M., Shimizu, M., Yoshizaki, M., & Morita, N. (1988). Chemical and pharmaceutical studies of medicinal plants in Paraguay: Geraniin, an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor from “Paraparai Mi”, Phyllanthus niruri. Journal of Natural Products, 51, 357-359. https://doi.org/10.1021/np50056a033
80. Uysal, İ., Mohammed, F. S., & Sevindik, M. (2024). Genus Capparis: Chemical, nutritional composition and biological activity. Studies in Natural Products Chemistry, 81, 367-386. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-15628-1.00009
81. Uzun, E., Sariyar, G., Adsersen, A., Karakoç, B., Ötük, G., Oktayoğlu, E., & Pirildar, S. (2004). Traditional medicine in Sakarya Province (Turkey) and antimicrobial activities of selected species. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 95(2–3), 287-296.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.08.010
82. Vassallo, A., Vaccaro, M. C., Tommasi, N. D., Piaz, F. D., & Leone, A. (2013). Identification of the plant compound geraniin as a novel Hsp90 inhibitor. PLoS ONE, 8(9), e74266. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0074266
83. Yang, Y.C., Li, J., Zu, Y.G., Fu, Y.J., Luo, M., Wu, N., & Liu, X.L. (2010). Optimisation of microwave-assisted enzymatic extraction of corilagin and geraniin from Geranium sibiricum Linne and evaluation of antioxidant activity. Food Chemistry, 122(1), 373-380.
84. Zeljković, S. Ć., Tan, K., Siljak-Yakovlev, S., & Maksimović, M. (2017). Essential oil profile, phenolic content and antioxidant activity of Geranium kikianum. Natural Product Communications, 12(2), 1934578X1701200234. Xu, Z., & Deng, M. (2017). Geraniaceae. In Identification and control of common weeds (Vol. 2, pp. 629-637).