The COVID-19 Pandemic, its Consequences, and the Recovery: Implementation of Disaster Education and Management is Key to the Schooling of Children with Disabilities

Year 2021, Volume: 5 Issue: 1, 22 - 48, 30.06.2021

Theodoto W. Ressa

Abstract

COVID-19 pandemic has eroded gains towards Kenya Vision 2030’s poverty eradication goal by denying Kenyan children and youth with disabilities access to (quality) education. Situational analysis on the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on education of primary and secondary school-age individuals from March 2020 to December 2020 reveal that the education opportunities for learners with disabilities remained unpredictable as the disease ravaged communities to the end of the year. Learners with disabilities fell behind academically after school closure and COVID-19 related biases predisposed them to academic failure and failed adulthood. Then, the implementation of disaster education and recovery plans are overdue and must intentionally target education of children and youth with disabilities.

Keywords

Disasters, pandemics, COVID-19, Kenya, Africa, disability, education, infrastructure

References

• ALMedlij, M. A., & Rubinstein-Ávila, E. B. (2019). The Development of LD Education in Saudi Arabia: Services and Implications for the future. International Journal of Modern Education Studies, 2(2), 83-96. https://doi.org/10.51383/ijonmes.2018.29
• Amri, A., Haynes, K., Bird, D. K., & Ronan, K. (2017). Bridging the divide between studies on disaster risk reduction education and child-centred disaster risk reduction: A critical review. Children’s Geographies. https://doi.org/10.1080/14733285.2017.1358448
• Andrews, R. J., & Quintana, L. M. (2015). Unpredictable, unpreventable and impersonal medicine: Global disaster response in the 21st century. The EPMA Journal, 6(1), 2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13167-014-0024-9.
• Annan, J. (2005). Situational Analysis: A Framework for Evidence-Based Practice. School Psychology International, 26(2), 131–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034305052909
• Ayugi, B., Tan, G., Niu, R., Dong, Z., Ojara, M., Mumo, L., Babaousmail, H., & Ongoma, V. (2020). Evaluation of meteorological drought and flood scenarios over Kenya, East Africa. Atmosphere, 11(3), 307. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11030307
• Babugura, A.A. (2008). Vulnerability of children and youth in drought disasters: A case study of Botswana. Children, Youth and Environments, 18(1), 126-157. www.jstor.org/stable/10.7721/chilyoutenvi.18.1.0126.
• Bonanno, G. A., Galea, S., Bucciarelli, A., & Vlahov, D. (2007). What predicts psychological resilience after disaster? The role of demographics, resources, and life stress. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(5), 671–682. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006x.75.5.671
• Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J. C. (1977/1990). Reproduction in education, society and culture (Vol. 4). London, England: Sage.
• Braden, C. R., Dowell, S. F., Jernigan, D. B., & Hughes, J. M. (2013). Progress in global surveillance and response capacity 10 years after severe acute respiratory syndrome. Emerg Infect Dis, 19(6), 864–69. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1906.130192
• Bronfenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. J. (1994). Nature-nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological model. Psychological Review, 101(4), 568-586. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.101.4.568
• Buechner, M. (2020, June 24). UNICEF: In War vs. Poverty (and COVID-19), Cash Is King. https://www.unicefusa.org/stories/unicef-war-vs-poverty-and-covid-19-cash-king/37415
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). International health regulations. http://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/ihregulations.htm
• Chan, M. (2014). Ebola virus disease in West Africa — No early end to the outbreak. N Engl J Med, 371, 1183-1185. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmp1409859
• Cliffe, A. D. (2017). A review of the benefits and drawbacks to virtual field guides in today's geoscience higher education environment. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 14, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0066-x
• Daily Nation Group. (2020, July 7). Schools to reopen in 2021: Magoha. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x8crXoPsknA
• Daily Nation Group. (2020, May 29). A chance to revitalise our education sector. https://www.nation.co.ke/kenya/blogs-opinion/editorials/a-chance-to-revitalise-our-education-sector-310804
• EduMonitor. https://theeducationmonitor.com/
• Edu TV Kenya https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCByj0XrDmb0UDUui63EOnhA
• Etherington, D. (2020, July 7). Alphabet's Loon launches its balloon-powered Kenyan internet service. TechCrunch. https://www.yahoo.com/finance/alphabets-loon-launches-balloon-powered-120454864.html
• Fidler, D. P. (2003). Public health and national security in the global age: infectious diseases, bioterrorism, and realpolitik. Geo Wash Int Law Rev, 416, 787–856. https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/facpub/416
• Field, C. B., Barros, V., Stocker, T., Dahe, Q., Dokken, D. J., Ebi, K. L., &
• Mastrandrea, M. D. (2012). Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• GHSA Preparation Task Force Team. (December 2015). Global Health Security: The Lessons from the West African Ebola Virus Disease Epidemic and MERS Outbreak in the Republic of Korea. Osong Public Health and Research Perspectives, 6(6), S25–S27. https://doi.org/0.1016/j.phrp.2015.12.006
• Hielkema, M., De Winter, A. F., & Reijneveld, S. A. (2017). Validity of a family-centered approach for assessing infants social-emotional wellbeing and their developmental context: A prospective cohort study. BMC Pediatrics, 17(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-017-0898-5
• International Monetary Fund (IMF). (2020a, March 6). IMF Executive Board Approves a US$739 Million Disbursement to Kenya to Address the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic. https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2020/05/06/pr20208-kenya-imf-executive-board-approves-us-million-disbursement-address-impact-covid-19-pandemic
• International Monetary Fund (IMF). (2020b, June). World Economic Outlook Update, June 2020: A Crisis Like No Other, An Uncertain Recovery. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2020/06/24/WEOUpdateJune2020
• Jordans, M. J., Pigott, H., & Tol, W. A. (2016). Interventions for children affected by armed conflict: A systematic review of mental health and psychosocial support in low-and middle-income countries. Current Psychiatry Reports, 18(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-015-0648-z
• Kabare, K. (October 2018). Social protection and disability in Kenya. https://www.developmentpathways.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Disability-Report-Kenya.pdf
• Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD). (2016). Report on needs assessment for primary level school curriculum in Kenya. https://kicd.ac.ke/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/PRIMARY-REPORT.pdf
• Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD). (n.d.). Out of classroom learning. https://kicd.ac.ke/broadcast-schedule/
• Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE). (2018). National Survey on Children with Disabilities and Special Needs in Education. https://www.kise.ac.ke/system/files/2020-07/Official%20Research%20Report%20on%20Disability%20Published%20by%20KISE%20%282018%29.pdf
• Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS) and ICF Macro. (2010). Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2008-09. Calverton, Maryland: KNBS and ICF Macro. http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/fr229/fr229.pdf.
• Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). 2009 Kenya Census. http://knbs.or.ke/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=109:population-and-housing-census-2009&Itemid=599.
• Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). (2010). The 2009 Kenya population and housing census. Nairobi: KNBS. http://knbs.or.ke/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=109:population-and-housing-census-2009&Itemid=599.
• Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). (2007). Kenya Vision 2030. http://vision2030.go.ke/inc/uploads/2018/05/Vision-2030-Popular-Version.pdf
• Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). (November 4, 2019). 2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census Results. https://www.knbs.or.ke/?p=5621
• Kiru, E. W. (2019). Special Education in Kenya. Intervention in School and Clinic, 54(3), 181–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451218767919
• Krause, V., & Otenyo, E. E. (2006). Terrorism and the Kenyan Public. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 28(2), 99-112. https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100590905075
• Krishna, R. N., Ronan, K.R., & Alisic, E. (2018). Children in the 2015 South Indian floods: community members’ views. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9(sup2), 1486122. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2018.1486122
• Leonard Chesire. (2019). Innovation to inclusion: Understanding data systems for employment and social protection of persons with disabilities in Kenya and Bangladesh. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---ifp_skills/documents/publication/wcms_732018.pdf
• Malplat, C. (May 19, 2020). Virus stigma weighs heavily in sub-Saharan Africa. AFP. https://news.yahoo.com/virus-stigma-weighs-heavily-sub-saharan-africa-024119780.html
• Mariga, G., Ogenga, S., Shikali, C., & Muliaro, J. (May 2017). Computer Laptop Project Strategy for Basic Education Schools in Kenya. International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Research, 7(5), 1-14. http://repository.mut.ac.ke:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2814
• Martin, M. L. (2010). Child participation in disaster risk reduction: The case of flood-affected children in Bangladesh. Third World Quarterly, 31(8), 1357–1375. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2010.541086
• Masten, A. S. (2014). Global perspectives on resilience in children and youth. Child Development, 85(1), 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12205
• McDermott, B. M., & Cobham, V. E. (2014). A stepped care model of post-disaster child and adolescent mental health service provision. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(1), 24294. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.24294
• Ministry of Education Science and Technology & Volunteer Service Oversees (2014). The National Special Needs Education Survey Report. Retrieved from https://www.vsointernational.org/sites/default/files/SNE%20Report_Full%20- 2.pdf
• Mishra, S., & Suar, D. (2007). Do lessons people learn determine disaster cognition and preparedness? Psychology & Developing Societies, 19(2), 143–159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/097133360701900201
• Mitchell, P., & Borchard, C. (2014). Mainstreaming children’s vulnerabilities and capacities into community based adaptation to enhance impact. Climate and Development, 6(4), 372–381.
• https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2014.934775
• Mugendi, Jacob. (August 15, 2019). Kenya’s primary school laptops project failed. https://www.iafrikan.com/2019/08/15/kenyas-failed-primary-school-laptops-project/
• Mulinya, L.C., & Orodho, J. A. (2015). Free primary education policy: Coping strategies in public primary schools in Kakamega South District, Kakamega County, Kenya. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(12), 162-172. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1080614.pdf
• Muthoni, K. (2020, April 30). Brookhouse school sued over online learning fee. The Standard. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/education/article/2001369625/brookhouse-school-sued-over-online-learning-fee
• Mutisya, D. N. & Makokha, G. L. (October 20, 2016). Challenges affecting adoption of e-learning in public universities in Kenya. E-Learning and Digital Media, 13(3–4) 140–157. https://doi-org/10.1177/2042753016672902
• Muttarak, R., & Pothisiri, W. (2013). The role of education on disaster preparedness: Case study of 2012 Indian Ocean earthquakes on Thailand’s Andaman coast. Ecology and Society, 18(4), 51. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-06101-180451.
• National Council For Persons With Disability (NCPWDs). (n.d.a). http://www.ncpwd.go.ke/images/PRESS_RELEASE-_May-June_2020_1.pdf
• National Council For Persons With Disability (NCPWDs). (n.d.a). Cash transfer payments for persons with severe disabilities under Inua Jamii Program for January-February 2020 and March-April 2020. http://www.ncpwd.go.ke/images/CT_payments_April_2020_1.pdf
• Ngugi, M., Mumiukha, C., Fedha, F., & Ndiga, B. (2015). Universal Primary Education in Kenya: Advancement and Challenges. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(14), 87–95. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1080119.pdf
• Ohba, A., & Malenya, F. L. (2020). Addressing inclusive education for learners with disabilities in the integrated education system: the dilemma of public primary schools in Kenya. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2020.1726727
• Okaka, F. O., & Odhiambo, B. D. O. (2018). Relationship between flooding and outbreak of infectious diseases in Kenya: A review of the literature. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/5452938
• Opeke, Funke. (2018, February 13). A call for infrastructure sharing in Africa: Funke Opeke. https://news.itu.int/a-call-for-infrastructure-sharing-in-africa/
• Peralta, E. (2020, July 11). As Kenya Keeps Schools Shut, Teen Pregnancies Are Rising. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2020/07/11/889718651/as-kenya-keeps-schools-shut-teen-pregnancies-are-rising
• Republic of Kenya. (2001). Children Act No.08/2001, 2001, retrieved from http://kenyalaw.org/Downloads/GreyBook/12.%20The%20Children's%20Act
• Republic of Kenya. (2009). The National Special Needs Education Policy Framework: Nairobi Government Printer.
• Republic of Kenya. (2010). The Constitution of Kenya. http://www.kenya-information-guide.com/support-files/the_constitution_of_kenya.pdf
• Ressa, T. (2009, November 20). “My Journey Across Ridges”: An Interview with Theodoto Ressa. Disability Studies Quarterly, 29, 4. https://doi.org/10.18061/dsq.v29i4.1007
• Ronan, K. R., Haynes, K., Towers, B., Alisic, E., Ireland, N., Amri, A.
• Davie, S., & Petal, M. (2016). Child-centred disaster risk reduction: Can disaster resilience programs reduce risk and increase the resilience of children and households? Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 31(3), 49–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8845-2_17
• Russell, L. A., Goltz, J. D., & Bourque, L. B. (1995). Preparedness and hazard mitigation actions before and after two earthquakes. Environment and Behavior, 27(6), 744–770. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013916595276002
• Schneider, D. E. (2018). Unstructured personal technology use in the classroom and college student learning: A literature review. The Community College Enterprise, 24(2), 10-20. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1207810
• Shreve, C. M., & Kelman, I. (2014). Does mitigation save? Reviewing cost-benefit analyses of disaster risk reduction. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 10(Part A), 213–235. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2014.08.004.
• Tanaka, K. (2005). The impact of disaster education on public preparation and mitigation for earthquakes: A cross-country comparison between Fukui, Japan and the San Francisco Bay Area, California. USA. Applied Geography, 25(3), 201–225. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2005.07.001.
• Transparency International. (2020). Corruption perceptions index 2019. https://www.transparency.org/files/content/pages/2019_CPI_Report_EN.pdf
• United Nations. (2019). Disability and Development Report: Realizing the Sustainable Development Goals by, for and with persons with disabilities. New York: United Nations. https://social.un.org/publications/UN-Flagship-Report-Disability-Final.pdf
• United Nations. (2015). Global Status Report on Disabilities and Development, Prototype. New York: United Nations.
• United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2008). Monitoring Child Disabilities in Developing Countries: Results from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys. Division of Policy and Practice: New York, NY
• United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2011). The state of the world’s children 2011. Adolescence the world of opportunity. New York: UNICEF.
• United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2013). The state of world’s children with disabilities. https://www.unicef.org/sowc2013/files/SWCR2013_ENG_Lo_res_24_Apr_20 13.pdf
• United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2014). Data on children & disabilities. http://www.unsiap.or.jp/e-learning/el_material/PSS/pcd_fiji/PCD_M2_3_P2.pdf
• United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2014). Draft document: Module on Child Functioning and Disabilities Washington Group on Disabilities Statistics. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/washington_group/meeting13/wg13_unicef_child_disability_background.pdf
• United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2017). The State of the World’s Children: Children in a Digital World. https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/SOWC_2017_ENG_WEB.pdf
• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (n.d.a). Education: From disruption to recovery. https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse
• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (n.d.b). Sustainable Development Goals. http://data.uis.unesco.org
• United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR). (2015). Disaster risk reduction and resilience in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Geneva, Switzerland: The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR). http://www.unisdr.org/files/46052_disasterriskreductioninthe2030agend.pdf
• van der Keur, P., van Bers, C., Henriksen, H. J., Nibanupudi, H. K., Yadav, S., Wijaya, R., Subiyono, A., Murkerjee, N., Hausmann, H., Hare, M., &
• van Scheltinga, C. T., Pearn, G. & Jaspers, F. (2016). Identification and analysis of uncertainty in disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation in South and Southeast Asia. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 16, 208–214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2016.03.002
• Waita, E. & Njehia, J. (2020, May 27). Kenya rolls out testing in Nairobi slums, but some fear stigma. Reuters. https://news.yahoo.com/kenya-rolls-testing-nairobi-slums-110012661.html
• Wamuyu, P. K. (2017, December). Bridging the Digital Divide among Low Income Urban Communities. Leveraging Use of Community Technology Centers. Telematics & Informatics, 34(8), 1709–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2017.08.004
• Willett, J., & Sears, J. (2018). Complicating our understanding of environmental migration and displacement: The case of drought-related human movement in Kenya. International Social Work, 63(3), 364-370. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872818799431
• Winters, N., Langer, L., & Geniets, A. (2017). Physical, psychological, sexual, and systemic abuse of children with disabilities in East Africa: Mapping the evidence. PloS One, 12(9), e0184541. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184541
• World Bank. (n.d.a). Disability Inclusion. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/disability
• World Bank. (n.d.b). How countries are using edtech (including online learning, radio, television, texting) to support access to remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/edutech/brief/how-countries-are-using-edtech-to-support-remote-learning-during-the-covid-19-pandemic
• World Health Organization (WHO). (2005). International Health Regulations (3rd ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241580496
• World Health Organization (WHO). (2011). Implementation of the International Health Regulations (2005): report of the Review Committee on the Functioning of the International Health Regulations (2005) in relation to pandemic (H1N1) 2009. A65/10. Geneva: World Health Organization.
• World Health Organization and World Bank. (2011). World report on disability. https://www.who.int/disabilities/world_report/2011/en/.