From Foe to Friend: Turkish-Russian Relations in the 21st Century

Year 2012, Volume: 5 Issue: 1, 85 - 102, 30.05.2016

Mert Gökırmak

Abstract

After the restrictive and deterrent dynamics of the Cold War, the relationship between Turkey and Russia seemed likely to produce back-breaking competition and to cause conflicts in the Turkish Republics in Central Asia and the Caucasus. For a period of time, these predictions have indeed come true. Turkey has begun wholesale cooperation with the Turkish states that were former Soviet Republics and Russia did not approve this affiliation. Nevertheless, this was the first step in Turkey’s multidimensional and regional foreign policy within the Black Sea region, the Caucasus and Central Asia primarily comprise a wide range of commercial concerns. Today, Turkey perceives the Black Sea, the Caucasus and the whole of Eurasia not as an arena for competition but as an agora for cooperation. This article argues that, the twenty-first century represents a milestone for Turkish-Russian relations. The changing circumstances of international politics and economics have mutually attracted the two nations. Turkey and Russia are no longer rivals; they now have complementary economies and interests that require them to form a new multilevel partnership.

Keywords

Turkish-Russian Relations, economic and politic cooperation, Black-Sea Region, Military Dialogue, Diplomacy.

References

• Aras, Bülent. (2009) Davutoğlu Era in Turkish Foreign Policy, SETA Policy Brief, available at: http://www.setav.org/Ups/dosya/7710.pdf, accessed 01 February
• Armaoğlu, Fahir. (1983) 20, yy. Siyasi Tarihi (1914-1980), Ankara.
• Aydoğan, Erdal. (2007)“Kliment Yefromoviç Voroşilov'un Türkiye'yi Ziyareti ve Türkiye-Sovyet Rusya İlişkilerine Katkısı”, Ankara Üniversitesi Türk İnkılâp Tarihi Enstitüsü Atatürk Yolu Dergisi, Number 39.
• Babalı, Tuncay. (2009) “Turkey at the Energy Crossroads”, Middle East Quarterly, Volume XVI, Number 2.
• Baran, Zeyno. (2008) “Turkey and the Wider Black Sea Region”, The Wider Black Sea Region in the 21st Century, ed. Daniel Hamilton and Gerhard Mangott: Washington D.C.: Center for Transatlantic Relations.
• Başlamış, Cenk. (2010) “Puşkin Okuyup İvedik Seyreden Çocuklar”, Milliyet, February 14.
• Birch, Nicholas. (2009) “Turkey: Is Ankara Trying to Tame the Russian Bear?”, Eurasianet, available at: http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav081409a.shtml, accessed 13 August 2009.
• Blank, Stephen. (2008) “Russia and the Black Sea’s Frozen Conflicts in Strategic Perspective”, Mediterranean Quarterly, Volume 19, Number 3.
• Ciurea, Cornel. (2010) “Black Sea Region – Continuity or Geopolitical Change”, Moldova’s Foreign Policy Statewatch for Institute for Development and Social Initiatives “Viitorul”, Issue 7.
• Çitçi, Selahattin. (2010) “Dostoyevski’nin Eserlerinde Türklere ve İslâma Bakış”, Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, Sayı 3 / 11.
• Daly, John C.K. (2007) “Sino-Turkish Relations Beyond the Silk Road”, China Brief, Volume: 7 Issue: 4.
• Fromkin, David. (2001) A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East, (New York, Owl Boks-2 Reprint Edition).
• Gökay, Bülent. (1997) Clash of Empires: Turkey Between Russian Bolshevism and British Imperialism, 1918-1923, I. B. Tauris.
• Gökırmak, Mert. (2005) “Düşük Yoğunluklu Demokrasi ve Kafkaslar’da Güvenlik”, Uluslararası Çatışma Alanları ve Türkiye’nin Güvenliği, ed. Gamze Güngörmüş Kona, (İstanbul: IQ Kültür-Sanat Yayıncılık).
• Güller, Mehmet Ali. (2010) “Türk-Rus İttifakı”, Ulusal Kanal, 10 May.
• Harris, George S. (1967) The Origins of Communism in Turkey, (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Pres).
• Harris, George S. (1995) “The Russian Federation and Turkey”, Regional Power Rivalries in the New Eurasia: Russia, Turkey, and Iran, ed. Alvin Z. Rubinstein & Oles M. Smolansky, (M.E. Sharpe).
• Hill, Fiona & Taspinar, Omer. (2006) “Turkey and Russia: Axis of the excluded?”, Survival, Volume 48, Issue 1.
• Hurewitz, J. C. (1962) “Russia and the Turkish Straits: A Revaluation of the Origins of the Problem”, World Politics, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 14, No. 4.
• Inalcik, Halil. (1993) The Middle East & the Balkans Under the Ottoman Empire: Essays on Economy & Society, Indiana University Turkish Studies.
• Jankowski, Dominik & Kowalik, Tomasz. (2010) “NATO-Russian Relations in the New International Security Environment”, International Issues & Slovak Foreign Policy Affairs, Issue: 2.
• Jelavich, Charles. (1978) Tsarist Russia and Balkan Nationalism: Russian Influence in the Internal Affairs of Bulgaria and Serbia, 1879-1886, (Greenwood Press Reprint).
• Jelavich, Charles & Barbara. (2009) The Establishment of the Balkan National States, 1920, (University of Washington Pres).
• Karpat, Kemal H. (1985) Ottoman Population, 1830-1914: Demographic and Social Characteristics, (Univ of Wisconsin Pr).
• Kaya, M. K. (2009) “After Putin Visit, Turkish-Russian Ties Set to Develop Further”, Turkey Analyst, Vol. 2, No. 14.
• Krasnolutska, Daryna & Choursina, Kateryna. (2010) “Ukraine May Give Russia Joint Control of Pipe to Cut Gas Prices”, Bloomberg, 03 September.
• Kirt, Sedat. (2006) “10 yılda 200 bin Rus Gelin”, NTV-MSNBC, available at: http://arsiv.ntvmsnbc.com/news/ 382497.asp; accessed 18 June 2010.
• Kuchins, Andrew C. & Sanderson, Thomas M. (2010) “The Northern Distribution Network and Afghanistan (Geopolitical Challenges and Opportunities)”, A Report of the CSIS Transnational Threats Project and the Russia and Eurasia Program.
• Lefebvre, Vincent Gagnon. (2008) “Russia's Observer Seat at the OIC”, Suite101.com, available at: http://www.suite101.com/content/russias-observer-seat-at-the-oic-a55068; accessed December 2009.
• Mansel, Philip. (1995) Constantinople: City of the World’s Desire 1453–1924, (London: John Murray).
• McCarthy, Justin. (1996) Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1922, (Darwin Press, Incorporated).
• McCarthy, Justin. (2010) Forced Migration and Mortality in the Ottoman Empire (An Annotated Map), available at: http://www.tc-america.org/media/Forced_Displacement.pdf, accessed 10 January
• Medvedev, Dmitry. (2010) “Russia and Turkey to Continue Relationships Beyond Goals”, Todays Zaman, 10 May.
• Norling, Nicklas. (2007) “Gazprom’s Monopoly and Nabucco’s Potentials: Strategic Decisions for Europe”, Silk Road Paper-Central Asia-Caucasus Institute & Silk Road Studies Program.
• Öğütçü, Mehmet. (2010) “Turkey and the Changing Dynamics of World Energy: Towards Cleaner and Smarter Energy”, Insight Turkey, Vol. 12, No. 3.
• Öniş, Ziya. (2001)“Turkey and Post-Soviet States: Potential and Limits of Regional Power Influence”, Middle East Review of International Affairs (MERIA), Volume 5, No.
• Özcan, Dilek. (2005) “Türk Dış Politikası'nda İslam Konferansı Örgütü”, TASAM (Think Tank Group).
• Pronina, Lyubov & Meric, Ali Berat. “Turkey Offers Route for Gazprom’s South Stream Gas Pipeline,” Bloomberg, August 6.
• Socor, Vladimir. (2009a) “Turkey Retracts Warning to Nabucco and the EU”, Eurasia Daily Monitor, Volume: 6, Issue: 15.
• Socor, Vladimir. (2009b) “Samsun-Ceyhan, Burgas-Alexandroupolis: Russian Options to Absorb Kazakhstan's Oil Production”, Eurasia Daily Monitor, Volume: 6 Issue: 157.
• Socor, Vladimir. (2009c) “Russia Shows Interest in Samsun-Ceyhan Oil Pipeline Proposal”, Eurasia Daily Monitor, Volume: 6 Issue: 157.
• Socor, Vladimir. (2008) “Kremlin Revises Costs For Expensive South Stream Project”, Eurasia Daily Monitor, Volume: 5 Issue: 146.
• Sotnikov, Vladimir. (2010) “Russia to Build Nuclear Power Plant in Turkey”, Strategic Culture Foundation.
• Sönmezoğlu, Faruk. (2001) "Kurtuluş Savaşı Dönemi Diplomasisi", Türk Dış Politikasının Analizi, (ed.) Faruk Sönmezoğlu, (İstanbul)
• Swallow, Charles. (1973) The Sick Man of Europe: Ottoman Empire to Turkish Republic, 1789–1923, (London: Ernest Benn Limited).
• Tekiner, Aylin. (2010) Atatürk Heykelleri (Kültür, Estetik, Siyaset), (İletişim Yayınları).
• Thumann, Michael. (2010) “A Turkish-Russian Alliance?”, The Majalla, 22 April.
• Torbakov, Igor. (2008) “The Georgia Crisis and Russia-Turkey Relations”, A Report of the Jamestown Foundation.
• Weitz, Richard. (2010) “Russia and NATO Clash Over Afghan Drugs”, Central Asia Caucasus Institute (CACI) Analyst.
• Weitz, Richard. (2010) “Medvedev’s Visit Marks New Stage In Russian-Turkish Energy Partnership”, Turkey Analyst, Vol. 3 No. 12.
• Watson, Hugh Seton. (1988) The Russian Empire, 1801–1917, (Oxford: Oxford University Pres).
• Watson, Ivan & Tkachenko, Maxim. (2010) “Russia, Ukraine Agree on Naval-Base- for-Gas Deal”, CNN-International, April 21.
• Yinanç, Barçın. (2010) “Old rivals, new partners: Russia and Turkey, tied by energy dependence”, Hurriyet-Daily News, August 9.