Intelligence and Its Relationship to Achievement

Year 2015, Volume: 14 Issue: 3, 1060 - 1078, 07.08.2015

Fatih Kaya Joyce Juntune Laura Stough

https://doi.org/10.17051/io.2015.25436

Cited By: 8

Abstract

Intelligence and achievement are two different, but interrelated, constructs and have been studied for over a century in an attempt to explain differences in educational and life outcomes. An enhanced understanding of the relationship between intelligence, both verbal and nonverbal, and achievement may contribute to improving the identification of gifted and talented children, particularly those from low SES populations. This comprehensive literature review examines the link between intelligence and achievement. It also provides a brief summary of selected psychometric theories of intelligence, including the Cattell-Horn Fluid and Crystallized theory of intelligence and Carroll’s three-stratum model of human intelligence. In attempt to gather all relevant scholarly literature, several procedures were used. A search of the key terms in the ERIC, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar databases was performed. In addition, the reference lists from these articles were examined to find additional articles and literature. To conclude, assessment of intelligence is one of the essential criteria for the identification of gifted and talented students. Verbal and nonverbal abilities can be assessed by many contemporary intelligence tests. The literature evidences that verbal abilities have stronger correlation with academic achievement than nonverbal abilities. Furthermore, verbal abilities are related to readiness to learn while nonverbal abilities are related to potential to learn. If intelligence scores are used to predict any kind of future academic performance, both verbal (readiness) and nonverbal (potential) abilities should be evaluated. Besides, in order to identify gifted and talented students, assessment of verbal abilities should accompany with the assessment of nonverbal abilities so that they will be able to survive in advanced academic programs.

Keywords

Intelligence, achievement, intelligence achievement relationship, theories of intelligence, gifted identification, literature review, testing

Zekâ ve Akademik Başarı Arasındaki İlişkisi

Abstract

Bu kapsamlı literatür taraması zeka ve akademik başarı arasındaki ilişkiyi incelemektedir. Ayrıca seçilmiş
psikometrik zekâ kuramları hakkında da bir özet sunmaktadır. Bu taramada ilgili literatüre ulaşmak için çeşitli
yöntemler kullanılmıştır. ERIC, PsycINFO ve Google Akademik’te belirlenmiş anahtar kelimelerle aramalar
gerçekleştirilmiştir. Elde edilen literatüre göre, sözel yeteneklerin akademik başarı ile olan ilişkisi sözel olmayan
yeteneklerinkinden daha güçlüdür. Bunun ötesinde, sözel yetenekler öğrenmeye hazırbulunuşluk ile ilişkiliyken,
sözel olmayan yetenekler öğrenme potansiyeli ile ilişkilidir. Zekâ puanları gelecekteki herhangi bir akademik
performansı yordamak için kullanılacaksa, sözel ve sözel olmayan zekâ puanları birlikte değerlendirilmelidir. Ayrıca,
üstün zekâlı ve yetenekli öğrencilerin tanılanmasında, sözel zekâ puanları sözel olmayan zekâ puanları ile birlikte
kullanılmalıdır ki, bu öğrenciler yerleştirildikleri ileri seviye programlarda başarılı olabilsinler.

Keywords

Zeka, akademik başarı, zeka ve akademik başarı ilişkisi, zeka kuramları, üstün zekalıların tanılanması, literatür taraması, test

References

• Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D. (1997). Intelligence, personality and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 219-245. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.121.2.219
• Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., & Boyle, M. O. (2002). Individual differences in working memory within a nomological network of cognitive and perceptual speed abilities. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131, 567-589. doi: 10.1037//0096-3445.131.4.567
• Anastasi, A. (1986). Intelligence as a quality of behavior. In R. J. Sternberg & D. K. Detterman (Eds.), What is Intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definitions (pp. 19-21). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
• Anastasi, A., & Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological testing. (7th ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Baldwin, A. Y. (2005). Identification concerns and promises for gifted students of diverse populations. Theory into Practice, 44, 105-114. doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4402_5
• Blair, C. (2006). How similar are fluid cognition and general intelligence? A developmental neuroscience perspective on fluid cognition as an aspect of human cognitive ability. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29, 109-160. doi:10.1017/S0140525X06009034
• Braden, J. P. (2000). Perspectives on the nonverbal assessment of intelligence. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 18, 204¬-210.
• doi:10.1177/073428290001800301
• Brody, N. (1992). Intelligence (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Academic Press.
• Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor–analytic studies. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
• Cattell, R. B. (1963). The theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 54(1), 1-22. doi:10.1037/h0046743
• Cattell, R. B. (1971). Abilities: Their structure, growth, and action. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
• Cattell, R. B., & Horn, J. L. (1978). A check on the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence with description of new subtest designs. Journal of Educational Measurement, 15, 139-164. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1978.tb00065.x
• Ceci, S. J. (1991). How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of the evidence. Developmental Psychology, 27(5), 703-722. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.27.5.703
• Ceci, S. J. (1992). Schooling and intelligence. Psychological Science Agenda, 5, 7-9.
• Ceci, S. J. (1994). Education, achievement, and general intelligence: What ever happened to the psycho in psychometrics? Psychological Inquiry, 5(3), 197-201. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0503_4
• Conway, A. R. A., Conwan, N., Bunting, M. F., Therriault, D. J., & Minkoff, S. R. B. (2002). A latent variable analysis of working memory capacity, short-term memory capacity, processing speed, and general fluid intelligence. Intelligence, 30, 163-183. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00096-4
• Deary, I. J., Strand, S., Smith, P., & Fernandes, C. (2007). Intelligence and educational achievement. Intelligence, 35(1), 13-21. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.02.001
• Delen, E., Kaya, F., & Ritter N. (2012). Test review: Comprehensive test of nonverbal intelligence (CTONI-2). Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 30(2), 209-213. doi:10.1177/0734282911415614
• Elliot, C. D. (1990). Differential Ability Scales. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
• Esters, I. G., Ittenbach, R. F., & Han, K. (1997). Today's IQ tests: Are they really better than their historical predecessors? School Psychology Review, 26(2), 211-224.
• Evans, J. J., Floyd, R. G., McGrew, K. S., & Leforgee, M. H. (2002). The relations between measures of Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) cognitive abilities and reading achievement during childhood and adolescence. School Psychology Review, 31(2), 246-262.
• Fischer, C. S., Hout, M., Jankowski, M. S., Lucas, S. R., Swidler, A., & Voss, K. (1996). Inequality by design: Cracking the bell curve myth. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Fisher, J. L. (1995). Relationship of intelligence quotients to academic achievement in the elementary grades. Retrieved September 2, 2011, from http://lib-ezproxy.tamu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED388428&site=ehost-live
• Flanagan, D. P., & McGrew, K. S. (1997). A cross-battery approach to assessing and interpreting cognitive abilities: Narrowing the gap between practice and cognitive science. In D. P. Flanagan, J. L. Genshaft, & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (pp. 314-325). New York, NY: Guilford.
• Flanagan, D. P., Andrews, T. J., & Genshaft, J. L. (1997). The functional utility of intelligence tests with special education populations. In D. P. Flanagan, J. L. Genshaft, & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (pp. 457-483). New York, NY: Guilford.
• Flanagan, D. P., Ortiz, S. O., Alfonso, V. C., & Mascolo, J. T. (2002). The Achievement Test Desk Reference (ADTR): Comprehensive assessment and learning disabilities. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
• Floyd, R. G., Evans, J. J., & McGrew, K. S. (2003). Relations between measures of Cattell–Horn-Carroll (CHC) cognitive abilities and mathematics achievement across the school–age years. Psychology in the Schools, 40(2), 155-171. doi:10.1002/pits.10083
• Fry, A. F., & Hale, S. (1996). Processing speed, working memory, and fluid intelligence: Evidence for a developmental cascade. Psychological Science, 7(4), 237-241. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00366.x
• Gagne, F., & St. Pere, F. (2002). When IQ is controlled, does motivation still predict achievement? Intelligence, 30(1), 71-100.
• Garcia, G. M., & Stafford, M. E. (2000). Prediction of reading by Ga and Gc specific cognitive abilities for low–SES White and Hispanic English–speaking children. Psychology in the Schools, 37, 227-235. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6807(200005)37:3<227::AID-PITS3>3.0.CO;2-T
• Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books.
• Gottfredson, L. (2003). Dissecting practical intelligence theory: Its claims and its evidence. Intelligence, 31, 343-397.
• Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). Mainstream science on intelligence: An editorial with 52 signatories, history, and bibliography. Intelligence, 24(1), 13-23. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90011-8
• Gottfredson, L. S. (1998, Winter). The general intelligence factor. Scientific American Presents, 9(4), 24-29.
• Gottfredson, L. S. (2005). Implications of cognitive differences for schooling within diverse societies. In C. L. Frisby & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of multicultural school psychology. (pp. 517–554). New York, NY: Wiley
• .
• Gottfredson, L. S. (2006). Social consequences of group differences in cognitive ability (Consequencias sociais das diferencas de grupo em habilidade cognitiva). In C. E. Flores–Mendoza & R. Colom (Eds.), Introducau a psicologia das diferencas individuais (pp. 433-456). Porto Allegre, Brazil: ArtMed Publishers.
• Gottfredson, L., & Saklofske, D. H. (2009). Intelligence: Foundations and issues in assessment. Canadian Psychology, 50(3), 183-195. doi:10.1037/a0016641
• Guilford, J. P. (1988). Some changes in the structure of intellect model. Educational and Psychological Measurement 48, 1-4. doi:10.1177/001316448804800102
• Gustafsson, J. E., & Undheim, J. O. (1996). Individual differences in cognitive functions. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 186-242). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Macmillan.
• Hanushek, E. A. (1989). The impact of differential expenditures on school performance. Educational Researcher, 18(4), 45-51. doi:10.2307/1176650
• Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life. New York, NY: Free Press.
• Horn, J. L. (1988). Thinking about human abilities. In J. R. Nesselroade & R. B. Cattell (Eds.), Handbook of multivariate experimental psychology (2nd ed., pp. 645-685). New York, NY: Plenum. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-0893-5_19
• Horn, J. L. (1991). Measurement of intellectual capabilities: A review of theory. In K. S. McGrew, J. K. Werder, & R. W. Woodcock (Eds.), WJ–R technical manual (pp. 197-232). Chicago, IL: Riverside.
• Horn, J. L., & Cattell, R. B. (1966). Refinement and test of the theory of fluid and crystallized general intelligence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 57, 253-270. doi:10.1037/h0023816
• Horn, J. L., & Noll, J. (1997). Human cognitive capabilities: Gf–Gc theory. In D. P. Flanagan, J. L. Genshaft, & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests and issues (pp. 53-91). New York, NY: Guilford.
• Jackson, D. N. (1976). Is achievement a unitary construct? Journal of Research in Personality, 10(1), 1-21. doi:10.1016/0092-6566(76)90079-9
• Jencks, C., Bartlett, S., Corcoran, M., Crouse, J., Eaglesfield, D., Jackson, G., … Williams, J. (1979). Who gets ahead? The determinants of economic success in America. New York, NY: Basic Books.
• Jensen, A. R. (1980). Bias in mental testing. New York, NY: Free Press.
• Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g factor: The science of mental ability. Westport, CT: Praeger.
• Jensen, A. R., & Munro, E. (1979). Reaction time, movement time, and intelligence. Intelligence, 3, 121-126. doi:10.1016/0160-2896(79)90010-2
• Juntune, J., Kaya, F., & Ramos, S. (2011). Another look at high ability students from low SES populations. Tempo, 32(4), 14-19.
• Kaya, F., Delen, E., & Bulut, O. (2012). Test review: Shipley-2. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 30, 593-597. doi:10.1177/0734282912440852
• Keith, T. Z. (1997). Using confirmatory factor analysis to aid in understanding the constructs measured by intelligence tests. In D. P. Flanagan, J. L. Genshaft, & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (pp. 373-402). New York, NY: Guilford.
• Keith, T. Z. (1999). Effects of general and specific abilities on student achievement: Similarities and differences across ethnic groups. School Psychology Quarterly, 14, 239-262. doi:10.1037/h0089008
• Koretz, D. (1997). Indicators of educational achievement. In R. M. Hauser, B. V. Brown, & W. R. Prosser (Eds.), Indicators of children's well-being (pp. 208-234). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
• Kuncel, N. R., Hezlett, S. A., & Ones, D. S. (2004). Academic performance, career potential, creativity, and job performance: Can one construct predict them all? Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 86(1), 148-161. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.148
• Kvist, A. V., & Gustafsson, J. (2008). The relation between fluid intelligence and the general factor as a function of cultural background: A test of Cattell's investment theory. Intelligence, 36, 422-436.
• Lakin, J. M., & Lohman, D. F. (2011). The predictive accuracy of verbal, quantitative, and nonverbal reasoning tests: Consequences for talent identification and program diversity. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 34(4), 595-623. doi:10.1177/016235321103400404
• Lee, S., Olszewski–Kubilius, P., & Peternel, G. (2010). Achievement after participation in a preparatory program for verbally talented students. Roeper Review, 32(3), 150-163. doi: 10.1080/02783193.2010.485301
• Lewis, J. D., DeCamp-Fritson, S. S., Ramage, J. C., McFarland, M. A., & Archwamety, T. (2007). Selecting for ethnically diverse children who may be gifted using Raven's standard progressive matrices and Naglieri nonverbal abilities test. Multicultural Education, 15(1), 38-42.
• Lindquits, E. F. (1957). The Iowa Test of Educational Development: Confidential Summary report of Average Scores. Chacago, IL: Science Research Associates.
• Lohman, D. F. (2005). The role of nonverbal ability tests in identifying academically gifted students: An aptitude perspective. Gifted Child Quarterly, 49, 111-138. doi:10.1177/001698620504900203
• Lubinski, D., Webb, R. M., Morelock, M. J., & Benbow, C. P. (2001). Top 1 in 10,000: A 10-year follow-up of the profoundly gifted. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(4), 718-729. doi:10.1037//0021-9010.86.4.718
• Luo, D., & Petrill, S. A. (1999). Elementary cognitive tasks and their role in g estimates. Intelligence, 27(2), 157-174. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00020-3
• Luo, D., Thompson, L. A., & Detterman, D. K. (2003). The casual factor underlying the correlation between psychometric g and scholastic performance. Intelligence, 31(1), 67-83.
• Mackintosh, N. J. (1998). IQ and human intelligence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Mackintosh, N. J. (2011). History of theories and measurement of intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg & S. B. Kaufman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of intelligence (pp. 3-19). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
• Mayer, R. E. (2011). Intelligence and achievement. In R. J. Sternberg & S. B. Kaufman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of intelligence (pp. 738-747). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
• McCall, R. B., Evahn, C., & Kratzer, L. (1992). High school underachievers: What do they achieve as adults? London, England: Sage.
• McGrew, K. S. (2005). The Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory of cognitive abilities. In D. P. Flanagan & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (2nd ed., pp. 136-181). New York, NY: Guilford.
• McGrew, K. S. (2009). CHC theory and the human cognitive abilities project: Standing on the shoulders of the giants of psychometric intelligence research. Intelligence, 37, 1-10. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2008.08.004
• McGrew, K. S., & Evans, J. J. (2004). Internal and external factorial extensions to the Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities: A review of factor analytic research since Carroll's Seminal 1993 Treatises. St. Cloud, MN: Institute for Applied Psychometrics.
• McGrew, K. S., & Flanagan, D. P. (1998). The intelligence test desk reference (ITDR): Gf–Gc cross–battery assessment. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
• McGrew, K. S., Flanagan, D. P., Keith, T. Z., & Vanderwood, M. (1997). Beyond g. The impact of Gf-Gc specific cognitive abilities research on the future use and interpretation of intelligence tests in the schools. School Psychology Review, 26, 177-189.
• Messick, S. (1992). Multiple intelligences or multilevel intelligence? Selective emphasis on distinctive properties of hierarchy: On Gardner's Frames of Mind and Sternberg's Beyond IQ in the context of theory and research on the structure of human abilities. Psychological Inquiry, 3, 365¬-384. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0304_20
• Moore, J. L., III, Ford, D. Y., & Milner, H. R. (2005). Recruitment is not enough: Retaining African American students in gifted education, Gifted Child Quarterly, 49, 51-67. doi: 10.1177/001698620504900106
• Naglieri, J. A., & Bornstein, B. T. (2003). Intelligence and achievement: Just how correlated are they? Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 21, 244-260. doi:10.1177/073428290302100302
• Naglieri, J. A., & Das, J. P. (1996). Das Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System. Chicago, IL: Riverside.
• Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Jr., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S., Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51(2), 77-101. doi:10.1037//0003-066X.51.2.77
• Oller, J. W., Jr., & Chavez, M. (1997, August). A closer look at non-verbal IQ tests. Poster presented at the conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA.
• Oller, J. W., Jr., Kim, K. & Choe, Y. (2000). Testing verbal (language) and nonverbal abilities in language minorities: A socio-educational problem in historical perspective. Language Testing, 17(3), 341-360.
• Papanastasiou, E. C. (1999). Intelligence: Theories and testing. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED441859
• Petrill, S. A., & Wilkerson, B. (2000). Intelligence and achievement: A behavioral genetic perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 12, 185-199.
• Rohde, T. E, & Thompson, L. A. (2007). Predicting academic achievement with cognitive ability. Intelligence, 35, 83-92. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.05.004
• Rolfhus, E. L., & Ackerman, P. L. (1999). Assessing individual differences in knowledge: Knowledge, intelligence, and related traits. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 511-526. doi:10.1037//0022-0663.91.3.511
• Saccuzzo, D. P., Johnson, N. E., & Russell, G. (1992). Verbal versus performance IQs for gifted African-American, Caucasian, Filipino, and Hispanic children. Psychological Assessment, 4, 239-244. doi:10.1037//1040-3590.4.2.239
• Sattler, J. M. (1988). Assessment of children (3rd ed.). San Diego, CA: Sattler.
• Scarr, S. (1994). Culture–fair and culture–free tests. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human intelligence (pp. 322-328). New York, NY: Macmillan.
• Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 262-274. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.124.2.262
• Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (2004). General mental ability in the world of work: Occupational attainment and job performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 162-173. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.162
• Shaywitz, B. A., Fletcher, J. M., Holahan, J. M., & Shaywitz, S. E. (1992). Discrepancy compared to low achievement definitions of reading disability: Results from the Connecticut longitudinal study. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 639-648. doi:10.1177/002221949202501003
• Shea, D. L., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2001). Importance of assessing spatial ability in intellectually talented young adolescents: A 20–year longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(3), 604-614. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.3.604
• Snow, R. E., & Yalow, E. (1982). Education and intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence (pp. 493-585). Cambridge, England: University Press.
• Snyderman, M. & Rothman, S. (1987). Survey of expert opinion on intelligence and aptitude testing. American Psychologist, 42, 137-144. doi:10.1037//0003-066X.42.2.137
• Spearman, C. (1904). "General intelligence," objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology 15, 201-293. doi:10.2307/1412107
• Stanley, J. C. (1997). Varieties of intellectual talent. Journal of Creative Behavior. 31(2), 93-119. doi:10.1002/j.2162-6057.1997.tb00783.x
• Steinberger, E. D. (1993). Improving student achievement. Arlington, VA: American Association of School Administrators.
• Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
• Sternberg, R. J. (1994). 468 factor-analyzed data sets: What they tell us and don't tell us about human intelligence. [Review of the book Human cognitive abilities, by John B. Carroll]. Psychological Science, 5(2), 63-65.
• Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity synthesized. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511509612
• Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L., & Bundy, D. A. (2001). The predictive value of IQ. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 47, 1-41. doi:10.1353/mpq.2001.0005
• Thurstone, L. L. (1938). Primary mental abilities. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
• Urbina, S. (2011). Tests of intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg & S. B. Kaufman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of intelligence (pp. 20-38). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
• Vernon, P. A. (1983). Speed of information processing and general intelligence. Intelligence, 7, 53-70. doi:10.1016/0160-2896(83)90006-5
• Warne, R. T. (2009). Comparing tests used to identify ethnically diverse gifted children: A critical response to Lewis, DeCamp-Fritson, Ramage, McFarland, & Archwamety. Multicultural Education, 17(1), 48-53.
• Wasserman, J. D., & Tulsky, D. S. (2005). The origins of intellectual processing. In D. P. Flanagan & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (2nd ed., pp. 3-38). New York, NY: Guilford.
• Watkins, M. W., Lei, P., & Canivez, G. L. (2007). Psychometric intelligence and achievement: A cross–lagged panel analysis. Intelligence, 35, 59-68. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.04.005
• Willis, J. O., Dumont, R., & Kaufman, A. S. (2011). Factor–Analytic Models of intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg & S. B. Kaufman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of intelligence (pp. 39-57). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
• Wise, B. W., Ring, J., & Olson, R. K., (1999). Training phonological awareness with and without explicit attention to articulation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 72, 271-304. doi:10.1006/jecp.1999.2490