CONTROLLING FOOTBALL-RELATED CRIME IN TURKEY: SITUATIONAL CRIME PREVENTION APPROACH AND IMPLICATIONS

Abstract

How to control football-related crime has historically often occupied the agenda in Turkey. Due to the lack of the empirical evidence on the effectiveness of the State control mechanisms on football, this paper employs the situational crime prevention approach to reveal how the available crime control techniques can plausibly produce reduction in football-related crime. Five mechanisms of the situational crime prevention model to reduce crime are accordingly related to each technique. The paper aims to produce a template which locates the Turkish social control on football into a particular crime prevention approach. 

Keywords

• Turkish football
• football-related crime
• crime control
• situational crime prevention

References

1. Arıkan, Y. and Çelik, O. (2007), ‘Futbolda Şiddet ve Polis/Violence in Football and the Police’, Polis Bilimleri Dergisi/Turkish Journal of Police Studies, 9(1-4): 109-132.
2. Armstrong, G. and Harris, R. (1991), ‘Football Hooligans: Theory and Evidence’, The Sociological Review, 39(3): 427-458.
3. BBC, 21 September 2011, ‘Fenerbahçe only Allowed to Admit Women and Children’. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/14998237 (Accessed: 26 October 2014).
4. Birkbeck, C. and LaFree, G. (1993), ‘The Situational Analysis of Crime and Deviance’, Annual Review of Sociology, 19: 113-137.
5. Bora, T. (2014), ‘Passolig: Kamu Alanının Gaspı/Passolig: Usurpation of Public Space’ (Online Article), Radikal. Available at: http://www.radikal.com.tr/yazarlar/tanilbora/passolig-kamu-alaninin-gaspi-1188145/ (Accessed: 8 August 2015).
6. Cavadino, M. and Dignan, J. (2007), The Penal System: An Introduction (4th Edition). London: Sage.
7. Circular of the Ministry of Interior on the Security of Sports Areas, published on 26 September 2013.
8. Circular of the Ministry of Youth and Sports on Law 6222, published on 16 August 2013. Document No: 30212986-000/3.

9. Clarke, J. (1978), ‘Football and Working Class Fans: Tradition and Change’, in Ingham, R., Hall, S., Clarke, J., Marsh, P. and Donovan, J. (eds.) Football Hooliganism: The Wider Context. London: Inter-Action Imprint.
10. Clarke, R. V. (1980), ‘Situational Crime Prevention: Theory and Practice’, British Journal of Criminology, 20(2): 136-147.
11. Clarke, R. V. (1983), ‘Situational Crime Prevention: Its Theoretical Basis and Practical Scope’, Crime and Justice, 4: 225-256.
12. Clarke, R. V. (1995), ‘Situational Crime Prevention’, Crime and Justice: Building a Safer Society: Strategic Approaches to Crime Prevention, 19: 91-150.
13. Clarke, R. V. (2008), ‘Situational Crime Prevention’, in Wortley, R. and Mazorelle, L. (eds.) Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis. Cullompton: Willan.
14. Constitutional Court Decision No. 2014/138, 11 September 2014.
15. Constitutional Court Decision No. 2015/103, 12 November 2015.
16. Council Decision 2002/348/JHA of 25 April 2002, concerning Security in connection with Football Matches with an International Dimension.
17. Council Decision 2007/412JHA of 12 June 2007, amending Decision 2002/348/JHA concerning Security in connection with Football Matches with an International Dimension.
18. Cornish, D. B. and Clarke, R. V. (2003), ‘Opportunities, Precipitators and Criminal Decisions: A reply to Wortley's Critique of Situational Crime Prevention’, Crime Prevention Studies, 16: 41-96.
19. Çelik, O. (2005), ‘Seyirci Saldırganlığı ve Polisin Tutumu/Spectator Aggressiveness and Attitude of the Police’, Polis Dergisi/Police Journal, 45: 16-21.
20. Davies, S. G. (1998), ‘CCTV: A New Battleground for Privacy’, in Norris, C., Morgan, J. and Armstrong, G. (eds.) Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control. Aldershot: Ashgate.
21. Demiryürek, M. S. (2003), Futbolda Şiddet Olgusu ve Futbol Karşılaşmalarının Güvenlik Yönetimi/The Phenomenon of Football Violence and Security Management. Master’s Thesis. Ankara University, Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Ankara.
22. Dere, C., (2013), ‘Spor Müsabakalarını Seyirden Yasaklanma/Banning from Watching Sport Competitions’, in Çağlar, T. (ed.) Ankara Barosu Spor Hukuku Kurulu - Av. Ömer Remzi Arıkan Armağanı/Ankara Bar Association Sport Law Committee – Special Edition for Lawyer Ömer Remzi Arıkan. Ankara: Mattek.
23. Tekin, D. (2017), An Evaluation of Situational Crime Prevention in Football in Turkey. Ph.D. Thesis. Queen’s University Belfast, School of Law, Belfast.
24. Duff, R. A. and Marshall, S. E. (2000), ‘Benefits, Burdens and Responsibilities: Some Ethical Dimensions of Situational Crime Prevention’, in Von Hirsch, A., Garland, D. and Wakefield, A. (eds.) Ethical and Social Perspectives on Situational Crime Prevention. Oxford: Hart Publishing.
25. Dunning, E, Murphy, P. and Williams, J. (1988), The Roots of Football Hooliganism: An Historical and Sociological Study. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
26. Fare Network (2014), Fare Observer Scheme in European Football Season 2013-14 Report. London: Fare Network.
27. Felson, M. and Boba, R. L. (2010), Crime and Everyday Life (4th Edition). London: Sage.
28. Felson, M. and Clarke, R. V. (1997), ‘The Ethics of Situational Crime Prevention’, in Newman, G., Clarke, R. V. and Shoham, S. G. (eds.) Rational Choice and Situational Crime Prevention. Aldershot: Ashgate.
29. Fenerbahçe.org (2008), Saracoğlu’na 178 Kameralı Yeni Güvenlik Sistemi/New Security System with 178 Cameras at Saraçoğlu. Available at: http://www.fenerbahce.org/i/detay.asp?ContentID=10693 (Accessed: 20 May 2016).
30. Final Report of Inquiry by Lord Justice Taylor into the Hillsborough Stadium Disaster, Submitted to the Home Secretary on 19 January 1990.
31. Football Disciplinary Regulations, 27 August 2011 (Turkey).
32. Football Disciplinary Regulations, 15 July 2014 (Turkey).
33. Football Disciplinary Regulations, 1 August 2015 (Turkey).
34. Frosdick, S. and Marsh, P. (2005), Football Hooliganism. London: Routledge.
35. Garland, J. and Rowe, M. (2000), ‘The Hooligan’s Fear of the Penalty’, Soccer & Society, 1(1): 144-157.
36. Garraffa, P. (2013), ‘Supporter’s Card and Stadium Attendance in Italy: A Successful Experiment?’ (Online Article), LawinSport. Available at: http://www.lawinsport.com/articles/regulation-a-governance/item/supporter-s-card-andstadium-attendance-in-italy (Accessed: 20 May 2016.)
37. Georgoulas, S. (2013), ‘Social Control in Sports and the CCTV Issue: A Critical Criminological Approach’, Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics, 16(2): 239-249.
38. Giulianotti, R. (1991), ‘Scotland's Tartan Army in Italy: The Case for the Carnivalesque’, Sociological Review, 39(3): 503-527.
39. Gońda, M. (2013), ‘Supporters’ Movements “against modern football” and Sport Mega Events: European and Polish Contexts’, Przegląd Socjologiczny, 3: 85-106.
40. Graham, K. and Homel, R. (2008), Raising the Bar: Preventing Aggression in and around Bars, Clubs and Pubs. Devon: Willan.
41. Guschwan, M. C. (2013), ‘La Tessera della Rivolta: Italy’s Failed Fan Identification Card’, Soccer & Society, 14(2): 215-229.
42. Gültekin, H. (2008), Türk Futbolunda Şiddetin Önlenmesine Yönelik Emniyet Uygulamalarının Yasalar Çerçevesinde İncelenmesi/Investigation of Security Applications Directed to the Prevention of Turkish Football Violence within the Frame of Laws. Master’s Thesis. Niğde University, Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Physical Training and Sports, Niğde.
43. Gültekin, O., Doğan, M., Doğan, A. and Eylen, B. (2000), ‘Futbol Sahalarında Şiddet ve Emniyet Güçlerinin Tutumu Üzerine Bir Araştırma/A Research on Violence in Football and Attitudes of Security Attendants’, 21.Yüzyılda Polisin Eğitimi Sempozyumu/Symposium of Police Training in 21st Century. Ankara: EGM Yayınları.
44. Güney, E. (2014), ‘Passolig Türk Sporundaki Şiddet ve Düzensizliği Nasıl Engelleyecek?’, Panorama Khas, 15: 70-72.
45. Home Office, 2011 – Official Statistics on Football-Related Arrests and Banning Orders, Season 2010/11.
46. Home Office, 2015 – Official Statistics on Football-Related Arrests and Banning Orders, Season 2014/15.
47. Hopkins M. and Hamilton-Smith, N. (2014), ‘Football Banning Orders: The Highly Effective Cornerstone of a Preventative Strategy?’, in Hopkins, M. and Treadwell, J (ed.) Football Hooliganism, Fan Behaviour and Crime: Contemporary Issues. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
48. Hürriyet, 11 May 2013, ‘Kadınlar da Yaktı/Punishment because of Women’. Available at: http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/kadinlar-da-yakti-23249156 (Accessed: 20 May 2016).
49. Hürriyet, 27 September 2013, ‘İstanbul’da Taraftar Operasyonu/Police Operation against Fans in İstanbul Available at: http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/istanbulda-taraftar-operasyonu-24800370 (Accessed: 20 May 2016).
50. Hürriyet, 27 April 2014, ‘Bugün Günlerden Fenerbahçe/Today is the Day of Fenerbahçe’. Available at: http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/bugun-gunlerden-fenerbahce-26302301 (Accessed: 20 May 2016).
51. Hürriyet, 18 November 2014, ‘Passolig’de de Top Anayasa Mahkemesi’nde/Passolig Case Referred to the Constitutional Court’. Available at: http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/passoligde-de-top-anayasa-mahkemesi-nde-27604666 (Accessed: 20 May 2016).
52. Hürriyet, 29 May 2015, ‘Tribün Kapatma Cezası Kalkıyor/Partial Stadium Ban Repeal’. Available at: http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/tribun-kapatma-cezasi-kalkiyor-29135879 (Accessed: 20 May 2016).
53. Hürriyet, 16 December 2015, ‘AYM’nin Passolig Kararı Kafaları Karıştırdı/Confusing AYM Decision’. Available at: http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/aymnin-passolig-kararikafalari-karistirdi-40027971 (Accessed: 20 May 2016).
54. James, M. and Pearson, G. (2006), ‘Football Banning Orders in the Courts’, Journal of Criminal Law, 70(6): 509-524.
55. Kaynak, İ. (2002), Spor Müsabakalarında Görev Yapan Polislerin Tutum ve Davranışlarının Araştırılması/Investigation of the Attitudes and Behaviours of the Police in Sports Competitions. Master’s Thesis. Gazi University, Institute of Health Sciences, Department of Physical Training and Sports, Ankara.
56. Kurland, J. (2014), The Ecology of Football-Related Crime and Disorder. Ph.D. Thesis. University College London, Department of Security and Crime Science, London.
57. Kurland, J., Johnson, S. D. and Tilley, N. (2014), ‘Offenses around Stadiums: A Natural Experiment on Crime Attraction and Generation’, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 51(1): 5-28.
58. Maccanico, Y. (2010), ‘Public Order and Demonstrations in Italy: Heavy-Handed Policing, Militarisation and Prohibition’, Statewatch Journal, 21(1): 7-15.
59. Madensen, T. D. and Eck, J. E. (2008), Spectator Violence in Stadiums - Problem-Oriented Guides for Police, No. 54. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS).
60. Marongiu, P. and Newman, G. (1997), ‘Situational Crime Prevention and the Utilitarian Tradition’, in Newman, G., Clarke, R. V. and Shoham, S. G. (eds.) Rational Choice and Situational Crime Prevention. Aldershot: Ashgate.
61. Marsh, P., Rosser, E. and Harré, R. (1978), The Rules of Disorder. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
62. Marx, G. (1998), Undercover: Police Surveillance in America. Berkeley: University of California Press.
63. Mastrogiannakis, D. and Dorville, C. (2013), ‘Electronic Surveillance in Greek Stadia: Bureaucratic Process and Bargaining Games of a Failed Operation’, Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics, 16(2): 184-191.
64. Mizrahi, D. D. and Maguire, J. (2014), ‘Content Analysis on the Media Expression of Hooligan Behaviour in Turkish Association Football Derbies: Case Study of Fenerbahçe SK – Galatasaray SK from 2000-2010’, in Hendriks, G., Gilbert, K., Oyon, D. and Stricker, C. (eds.) Collected Insights from the Field of Sport - Volume 1: Football and Society. Lausanne: AISTS.
65. Murphy, P. and Waddington, I. (2005), Soccer Review. Leicester: The Professional Football Association.
66. Newburn, T. and Hayman, S. (2002), Policing, Surveillance and Social Control: CCTV and Police Monitoring of Suspects. Cullompton: Willan.
67. Norris, C. and Armstrong, G. (1999), The Maximum Surveillance Society: The Rise of CCTV. Oxford: Berg.
68. Ntvspor News Portal, 13 March 2014, ‘Kadın ve Çocuklar Ceza Aldırdı!/Women and Children Cause Punishment!’. Available at: http://www.ntvspor.net/haber/futbol/104272/kadin-ve-cocuklar-ceza-aldirdi (Accessed: 20 May 2016).
69. Orta, L. (2012), ‘Strategic Effects of Woman Fans on Football Matches’, International Journal of Management Sciences and Business Research, 1(8): 36-44.
70. Pearson, G. (2012), An Ethnography of English Fans: Cans, Cops, and Carnivals. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
71. Ponturo, T. (2014), Alcohol and Football. London: Alcohol Concern. Pulur, A., Kaynak, İ. and Orhan, S. (2004), ‘Polislerin Spor Müsabakalarındaki Saldırgan Seyirciye Müdahalede Kendi Taraftarlığının Etkisinin Araştırılması/The Investigation of the Effect of Supportive Attitudes of Police on Their Interfering Behaviors towards Aggressive Spectators in Sports Competitions’, Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi/Journal of Kırşehir Education Faculty, 5(2): 241-260.
72. Radikal, 1 August 2013, ‘Taraftara ‘Direniş’ Yasak/Fan ‘Resistance’ Forbidden’. Available at: http://www.radikal.com.tr/spor/taraftara-direnis-yasak1144375/ (Accessed: 20 May 2016).
73. Report of the Parliamentary Research Committee. Turkish: Spor Kulüplerinin Sorunları ile Sporda Şiddet Sorununun Araştırılarak Alınması Gereken Önlemlerin Belirlenmesi Amacıyla Kurulan Meclis Araştırması Raporu. May 2011.
74. Sabah, 19 March 2014, ‘Kadınlara da Yasak Gelsin/Ban for Women’. Available at: http://www.sabah.com.tr/spor/superlig/2014/03/19/kadinlara-da-yasak-gelsin (Accessed: 20 May 2016).
75. Sağır, A. (2012), ‘Sociological Analysis of the Case of Football in Turkey in the Context of Law No. 6222’, TODAİE’s Review of Public Administration, 6(3): 165-194.
76. Sève, R. (1997), Philosophical Justifications of Situational Crime Prevention, in Newman, G., Clarke, R. V. and Shoham, S. G. (eds.) Rational Choice and Situational Crime Prevention. Aldershot: Ashgate.
77. Siekmann, R., Gardiner, S., Soek, J., Olfers, M. and Mojet, H. (2004), Football Hooliganism with an EU Dimension: Towards an International Legal Framework – Final Report AGIS Programme 2003. The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Instituut.
78. Spaaij, R. (2006), Understanding Football Hooliganism: A Comparison of Six Western European Football Clubs. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
79. Stadium Database News Portal, 12 December 2015, ‘Poland: Clubs Withdrawing Obligatory Fan Cards’. Available at: http://stadiumdb.com/news/2015/02/poland_clubs_withdrawing_obligatory_fan_cards (Accessed: 3 May 2016).
80. Stadium Security Research 2013 by Bahçeşehir University & City Security Group. Turkish: Stadyum Güvenliği Araştırması.
81. Stott, C. and Reicher, S. (1998), ‘How Conflict Escalates: The Inter-Group Dynamics of Collective Football Crowd Violence’, Sociology, 32(2): 353-377.
82. Sutton, A., Cherney, A. and White, R. (2008), Crime Prevention: Principles, Perspectives and Practices. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
83. Taylor, I. (1976), ‘Spectator Violence around Football: The Rise and Fall of the Working Class Weekend’, Research Papers in Physical Education, 4: 4-9.
84. Taylor, M. (2013), The Association Game: A History of British Football. Oxon: Routledge.
85. TFF Press Release, 15 October 2008, ‘Ordu'da “Türkiye'de Bayan Futbolu” Semineri/Seminar in Ordu on “Women’s Football in Turkey”’.
86. TFF Press Release, 17 November 2011, ‘Kulüplerden Ortak Karar/Mutual Decision by Clubs’.
87. TFF Press Release, 13 August 2012, ‘Kadın/Çocuk Seyirci Uygulamasına Altın Pusula Ödülü/Golden Compass Reward to Women and Children Only Game Practice’.
88. Tilley, N. (1993), Understanding Car Parks, Crime and CCTV: Evaluation Lessons from Safer Cities. London: Home Office Police Department.
89. Tsoukala, A. (2009), Football Hooliganism in Europe: Security and Civil Liberties in the Balance. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
90. Turkish NOC Report 2013 by Turkish National Olympic Committee Sport Law Commission & İstanbul Bar Association Sport Law Commission.
91. UEFA Disciplinary Regulations (Edition 2011).
92. UEFA Safety and Security Regulations (Edition 2006).
93. Üstünel, R. and Alkurt, Z. (2015), ‘Futbolda Şiddet ve Düzensizliğin Önlenmesi için 6222 Sayılı Yasanın Getirdiği Yeni Bir Uygulama: Elektronik Bilet ve Yaşanan Sorunlar/A New Application by Law No.6222 to Prevent Football Violence and Disorder: Electronic Ticket and Associated Problems’, Kara Harp Okulu Bilim Dergisi/Science Journal of Turkish Military Academy, 25(2): 141-175.
94. Welsh, B. C. and Farrington, D. P. (2009), ‘Public Area CCTV and Crime Prevention: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis’, Justice Quarterly, 26(4): 716-745.
95. White, R. (1996), ‘Situating Crime Prevention: Models, Methods,and Political Perspectives’, in Hommel, R. (ed.) The Politics and Practice of Situational Crime Prevention. New York: Criminal Justice Press.
96. Williams, J., Dunning, E. and Murphy, P. (1984), Hooligans Abroad: The Behaviour and Control of English Fans in Continental Europe. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
97. Wortley, R. (2001), ‘A Classification of Techniques for Controlling Situational Precipitators of Crime’, Security Journal, 14: 63-82.
98. Woźniak, W. (2013), ‘Polish Football under Transition: Catch-Up Modernisation Gone Wrong’ in Hynes, D. and Kiernan, A. (eds.) Football and its Communities. Oxford: Inter-Disciplinary Press.
99. Zafer, H. (2014), ‘Sporda Şiddet ve Düzensizliğin Önlenmesine Yönelik Bir Çare Olarak Seyirden Yasaklama/A Remedy to Prevent Violence and Disorder in Sport: Banning Order from Match’, Türkiye Adalet Akademisi Dergisi/Journal of the Justice Academy of Turkey, 5(19): 23-52.
100. Legal Sources Act on Mass Events Security of 20 March 2009, The Journal of Laws No. 62, Item 504 (Poland).
101. Regulation on the Implementation of Law 6222. Turkish: Sporda Şiddet ve Düzensizliğin Önlenmesine Dair Kanunun Uygulanmasına İlişkin Yönetmelik. Published in the Official Gazette on 22 December 2012.
102. Constitution of the Republic of Turkey, Published in the Official Gazette on 20 October 1982.
103. Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 1980. Criminal Procedure Code of Turkey, Law No. 5271 of 4 December 2004.
104. European Convention on Spectator Violence and Misbehaviour at Sports Events and in particular at Football Matches CETS No. 120, Council of Europe. Entry into Force: 1 November 1985.
105. Football Spectators Act 1989 (England and Wales).
106. Law 2559 on Police Powers (Turkey). Published in the Official Gazette on 14 July 1934.
107. Law 5149 to Prevent Violence and Disorder at Sporting Events (Turkey). Turkish: Spor Müsabakalarında Şiddet ve Düzensizliğin Önlenmesine Dair Kanun. Published in the Official Gazette on 07 May 2004.
108. Law 5188 on Private Security Services (Turkey). Published in the Official Gazette on 26 June 2004.
109. Law 6222 to Prevent Violence and Disorder at Sporting Events (Turkey). Turkish: Sporda Şiddet ve Düzensizliğin Önlenmesine Dair Kanun. Published in the Official Gazette on 14 April 2011.
110. Preamble to Law 6222: Draft Law on the Prevention of Violence and Disorder in Sports and the Report of the Justice Commission – 1/990. Turkish: Sporda Şiddet ve Düzensizliğin Önlenmesine Dair Kanun Tasarısı ile Adalet Komisyonu Raporu. 27 December 2010.
111. Preamble to Law 6259 – Legislative Proposal to Amend Law 6222. Sporting Events (Control of Alcohol) Act 1985 (England and Wales).
112. Turkish Penal Code, Law No. 5237 of 26 September.