Birleşmiş Milletler’de Koruma Sorumluluğu ve İnsan Güvenliği Kavramları: Anlamlara Dönüş

Abstract

Koruma sorumluluğu ve insan güvenliği kavramları, ortaya çıkışlarından bu yana düşünce ve uygulama anlamında uluslararası toplumun özel ilgisine konu olmuştur. Bu olgunun merkez üssü olan Birleşmiş Milletler, kavramların anlamları konusunda kaçınılmaz olarak resmi bir pozisyon almak durumundadır. Eldeki çalışma, söz konusu kavramların anlamlarını yeniden gözden geçirmekte ve esas olarak Birleşmiş Milletler ve Genel Kurul’un normatif üretimlerine dayanarak, bunların yalnızca, uluslararası istikrarın koşulu olarak sorumlu egemenlik kavramında özetlenen, mevcut dünya düzeninin Birleşmiş Milletler Şartı tarafından somutlaştırılan ilkelerine dayandığını varsaymaktadır. Bu nedenle koruma sorumluluğu ve insan güvenliği, uluslararası ilişkilerde insanlığın menfaatlerinin daha iyi değerlendirilmesi yönünde verdikleri ve tutulmuş görünen tüm sözlerin ötesinde -ne eksik ne fazla- Birleşmiş Milletler Şartı tarafından garanti edilen hususların sadece (yeniden) ifadeleridir. Bu kavramların objektif özleri, Birleşmiş Milletler içindeki anlamlarının siyasi doğasını açığa çıkararak, bir bakıma belirsizliğini göstermektedir.

Keywords

• Uluslararası Hukuk
• Koruma Sorumluluğu
• Insan Güvenliği
• Birleşmiş Milletler
• Sorumlu Egemenlik

The Concepts of the Responsibility to Protect and Human Security within the United Nations: Return on the Meanings

Abstract

Since their emergence, the concepts of the responsibility to protect and human security have been subject to a particular thinking and practical attention of the whole international community. The United Nations, which is the epicenter of this phenomenon, had inescapably to take an official position on the meanings of these concepts. This paper revisits the sense of these meanings and mainly based on the normative production of the United Nations and General Assembly, it postulates that they rest only on the principles of the current world order embodied by the United Nations Charter, summing up in the responsible sovereignty, as the condition for international stability. Thus, beyond all the promises they seemed to bear in favor of a better consideration of human beings’ interests in international affairs, the responsibility of protect and human security are just (re)expressions of the state of affairs guaranteed by the United Nations Charter, no more, no less. Comparatively, the objective substances of these concepts, by unveiling the political nature of their meanings within the United Nations, show their ambiguity.

Keywords

• International Law
• Responsibility to Protect
• Human Security
• United Nations
• Responsible Sovereignty

References

1. Akehurst, Michael, “Custom as a Source of International Law”, British Yearbook of International Law, Vol. 47, No. 1, 1974-1975, pp. 157-200.
2. Annan, Kofi, Secretary-General Presents His Annual Report to the General Assembly, Press Release, 20 September 2000, UN Doc. SG/SM/7136/GA/9596.
3. Annan, Kofi, Secretary-General Salutes International Workshop on Human Security in Mongolia, Two-Day Session in Ulaanbaatar, May 8-10, 2000; Press Release SG/SM/7382.
4. Asamoah, Obed Yao, The Legal Significance of the Declarations of the General Assembly of the United Nations, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1966.
5. Ayoob, Mohammed, “Humanitarian Intervention and State Sovereignty,” The International Journal of Human Rights, Vol. 6, No 1, 2002, pp. 81-102.
6. Badescu, Cristina Gabriela, Humanitarian Intervention and the Responsibility to Protect Security and human rights, Routledge, London, and New York, 2011.
7. Baer, George, Test Case: Italy, Ethiopia, and the League of Nations, Hoover Institution Press, Stanford, 1976.
8. Bellamy, Alex J., “The Responsibility to Protect, A Wide or Narrow Conception?” in Hilpold, Peter (ed.), A New Paradigm of International Law? Brill Nijhoff, Leiden, Boston, 2015, pp. 38-59.

9. Bellamy, Alex J., “The Responsibility to Protect: Added value or hot air?”, in Cooperation and Conflict, Vol. 48, 2013, pp. 128-134.
10. Belov Martin (ed.), Global Constitutionalism and Its Challenges to Westphalian Constitutional Law, Hart Publishing, Oxford, 2018.
11. Breau, Susan, The Responsibility to Protect in International Law. An Emerging Paradigm Shift, Routledge, London and New York, 2016.
12. Brown, Chris, “Universal Human Rights: A Critique,” in Dunne T., Wheeler N. (eds) Human Rights in Global Politics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999; pp. 71-102.
13. Brunnée, Jutta, “International Law and Collective Concerns: Reflections on the Responsibility to Protect,” in Ndiaye T. M., Wolfrum R. (eds), Law of the Sea, Environmental Law and Settlement of Disputes: Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2007, pp. 35-51.
14. Byers, Michael, “Custom, Power and the Power of Rules, International relations and Customary International law, Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp. 129-147.
15. Castles, Alex Cuthbert, “Legal Status of UN Resolutions”, The Adelaide Law Review, Vol. 3, No: 68, 1967, pp. 68-83.
16. Cede, Franz; Sucharipa-Behrmann, Lilly, The United Nations, Law and Practice, Kluwer Law International, The Hauge, 2001.
17. Clapham, Andrew, Brierly’s Law of Nations, An Introduction to the Role of International Law in International Relations, 7’th Ed., Oxford University Press, London, 2012.
18. Cooper, Richard H.; Voïnov Kohler, Juliette, “Introduction. The Responsibility to Protect. The Opportunity to Relegate Atrocity Crimes to the Past”, in Cooper, R. H. Voïnov Kohler J. (ed.), Responsibility to Protect. The Global Moral Compact for the 21st Century, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2009, pp. 1-12.
19. Cudd, Ann; Eftekhari, Sahar, “Contractarianism”, The Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, First published Sun. Jun. 18, 2000; substantive revision Wed. Mar. 15, 2017, Accessed on Sept. 04, 2020.
20. D’Amato, Anthony, “There is no Norm of Intervention or non-intervention in International Law”, International Legal Theory, Vol. 7, n°1, 2001, pp. 33-40.
21. D'Amato, Anthony, The Concept of Custom In International Law, Ithaca and London, Cornell University Press, 1971.
22. David, Eric, “Portée et Limite du Principe de Non-Intervention”, Revue Belge de Droit International, No: 2, Éditions Bruylant, Bruxelles, 1990, pp. 350-367.
23. Dederer, Hans-Georg, “Responsibility To Protect” and “Functional Sovereignty”, in Hilpold Peter (ed.), A New Paradigm of International Law? Brill Nijhoff, Leiden, Boston, 2015, pp. 156-183.
24. Deng Francis M., Internally displaced persons, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1996, 52, 22 February 1996.
25. Deng, Francis M. Protecting the Dispossessed. A Challenge for the International Community, 1993.
26. Deng, Francis M.; Kimaro, Sadikiel; Lyons, Terrence; Rothchild, Donald; Zartman, Ira William, Sovereignty as Responsibility, Conflict Management in Africa, 1996.
27. Deplano, Rossana, The Strategic Use of International Law by the United Nations Security Council. An Empirical Study, Springer, London, 2015.
28. Dersso, Solomon Ayele, “The African Union” in Zyberi G. (ed.), An Institutional Approach to the Responsibility to Protect (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013, pp. 220-246.
29. Einarsen, Terje, The Concept of Universal Crimes in International Law, Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, Oslo, 2012.
30. El Fasi, Mohammed; Hrbek, Ivan M. (Dir.), Histoire Générale De L’afrique II: Afrique du VIIe au XII e siècle, UNESCO, 1990.
31. Erkiner, Hakkı Hakan; Akoudou, Emerant Yves Omgba, “Human Security as Final Cause of Political Society”, Marmara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Hukuk Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2021 - Volume: 27 Issue: 1, pp. 120-153.
32. Evans, Gareth, “The Responsibility to Protect From an Idea to an International Norm”, in Cooper, R. H. Voïnov Kohler J. (ed.) Responsibility to Protect. The Global Moral Compact for the 21st Century,
33. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2009; pp. 15-30.
34. Falk, Richard A.; Black, Cyril Edwin (eds.), The Future of the International Legal Order, Vol. I, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1969.
35. Fassbender, Bardo, The United Nations Charter as the Constitution of the International Community, Legal Aspects of International Organization, Vol. 51, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden, Boston, 2009.
36. Feingold, Henry, “How Unique is the Holocaust?” in Grobman, Alex; Landes, Daniel (eds.), Genocide: Critical Issues of the Holocaust, Los Angeles, Simon Wiesenthal Center, 1983.
37. Finkelstein, Claire, “Contrarianism”, in Gaus, Gerald; D’Agostino, Fred (eds.), The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy, Taylor and Francis, New York, 2013, pp. 305-316.
38. Frechette, Louise, Deputy Secretary-General Addresses Panel on Human Security Marking Twentieth Anniversary of Vienna International Centre, 12 October 1999, Press Release DSG/SM/70.
39. Fukuda-Parr, Sakiko; Messineo, Carole, Human Security: A critical review of the literature, Centre for Research on Peace and Development, Working Paper n° 11, KU Leuven, January 2012.
40. Garrard, Eve, “Forgiven, quess and the Holocaust’, Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, Vol. 5, 2002, pp. 147-65.
41. Gattini, Andrea, “Responsibility to Protect and the Responsibility of International Organizations”, in Hilpold Peter (ed.), A New Paradigm of International Law? Brill Nijhoff, Leiden, Boston, 2015, pp. 219-236.
42. Gaus, Gerald; Thrasher, John, “Contemporary Approaches of the social Contract”, The Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, First published Sun. Mar. 03, 1996; substantive revision Wed. May 31, 2017, Accessed on Sept. 04, 2020.
43. Genser, Jared, “The United Nations Security Council’s Implementation of the Responsibility to Protect: A Review of Past Interventions and Recommendations for Improvement”, Chicago Journal of International Law, Vol. 18: No. 2, Article 2, 2018; pp. 420-501.
44. Genser, Jared; Stagno, Ugarte Bruno (eds.), The United Nations Security Council in the Age of Human Rights, Cambridge University Press, 2014.
45. Geras, Norman, Crimes against Humanity. A birth of a concept, Manchester University Press, Manchester, and New York, 2011.
46. Goldewijk, Berma Klein, “New Wars” and the State: The Nexus Religion-Human Security”, in Frerks Georg; Goldewijk, Berma Klein (eds.), Human Security and International Insecurity, Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, 2007, pp. 65-97.
47. Guggenheim, Paul, “Les deux éléments de la coutume en droit international”, in La Technique et Les Principes Du Droit Public, Etudes En L'honneur De Georges Scelle, Paris, Librairie Générale de Droit et de Jurisprudence, 1950, pp. 275-284.
48. Hakimi, Monica, “Toward a Legal Theory on the Responsibility to Protect”, Yale Journal of International Law, Vol. 39, Iss. 2, No. 3, 2014, pp. 247-281.
49. Hehir, Aidan, Hollow Norms and the Responsibility to Protect, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2019.
50. Heieck John, “Emerging Voices: Illegal Vetoes in the Security Council-How Russia and
51. China breached their Duty under Jus Cogens to Prevent War Crimes in Syria,” in Opinio Juris, at http://opiniojuris.org; High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges, and Change, A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility, New York: United Nations, 2004.
52. Hilpold, Peter, “R2P and Humanitarian Intervention in a Historical Perspective”, Responsibility to Protect (R2P), in Hilpold, Peter (ed.), A New Paradigm of International Law? Brill Nijhoff, Leiden, Boston, 2015, pp. 60-122.
53. Hinsley, Francis Harry, Sovereignty, Watts, London, 1966.
54. International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS), The Responsibility To Protect, National Library of Canada cataloging in publication data, Ottawa, December 2001.
55. Jackson, Robert, Quasi-states: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
56. Kennedy, David, “The Sources of International Law”, American University International Law Review, Vol. 2 No. 1, 1987.
57. Ki-Zerbo, Joseph (Dir.), Histoire Générale De L’afrique I: Méthodologie et préhistoire africaine, UNESCO, 1980.
58. Kunadt, Nadja, “The Responsibility to Protect as a General Principle of International Law” Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional, Vol. 11, 2011, pp. 187-226.
59. Labonte, Melissa, Human Rights and Humanitarian Norms, Strategic Framing, and Intervention. Lessons for the responsibility to protect, Routledge, 2013.
60. Lefkowitz, David, “Sources in Legal-Positivist Theories: Law as Necessarily Posited and the Challenge of Customary Law Creation”, in Besson, Samantha; d’Aspremont, Jean (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Sources of International Law, 2017, pp. 1-19.
61. Lowe, Vaughan; Roberts, Adam; Welsh, Jennifer; Zaum, Dominik, The United Nations Security Council and War, The Evolution of Thought And Practice Since 1945, Oxford University Press, New York, 2008.
62. Luban, David, “A Theory of Crimes against Humanity”, Yale Journal of International Law, Vol. 29, pp. 85-167, 2004, pp. 85-168.
63. Mann, Michael, The Sources of Social Power, Volume 1: A History of Power from the Beginning to 1760 AD Cambridge University Press, 1986.
64. Mann, Michael, The Sources of Social Power, Volume 2: The Rise of Classes and Nation-States, 1760–1914 Cambridge University Press, 1993.
65. Manusama, Kenneth, The United Nations Security Council in the Post-Cold War Era Applying the Principle of Legality, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers Leiden, Boston, 2006.
66. Mcdonough, Frank, The Origins of the First and Second World Wars, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
67. Meron, Thirlway “The Geneva Convention as Customary Law”, The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 81, No. 2, April 1987, pp. 348-370.
68. Mojzes, Paul, Balkan genocides: holocaust and ethnic cleansing in the twentieth century, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Plymouth, 2011.
69. Mokthar, Gamal (Dir.), Histoire Générale De L’afrique II: Afrique Ancienne, UNESCO, 1980.
70. Nagan, Winston P.; Hammer, Craig, “The Changing Character of Sovereignty in International Law and International Relations”, Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, vol. 43, No. 143, 2004, pp. 141-187.
71. Niane, Djibril Tamsir (Dir.), Histoire Générale De L’afrique IV. L’Afrique du XII e au XVI e siècle, UNESCO, 1987.
72. Oellers-Frahm, Karin, “Responsibility to Protect, any new Obligations for the Security Council and its Members?” in Hilpold Peter (ed.), A New Paradigm of International Law? Brill Nijhoff, Leiden, Boston, 2015, pp. 184-206.
73. Ogata Sadako, Statement of Mrs. Sadako Ogata, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, The Asian Development Bank Seminar “Inclusion or Exclusion: Social Development Challenges For Asia and Europe,” Geneva, 27 April 1998.
74. Oppenheim, Lassa, Oppenheim’s International Law, Sir R. Jennings, Sir A. Watts, (eds.), 9th Edition, Vol. 1, 1992.
75. Petersen, M. J., The United Nations General Assembly, Global Institutions Series, Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group, London, New York, 2006.
76. Ratner, Steven R.; Abrams, Jason S., Accountability for Human Rights Atrocities in International Law: Beyond the Nuremberg Legacy, Oxford: Clarendon, 1997.
77. Ravelona, Rajaona Andrianaivo, Sécurité humaine: Clarification du concept et approches par les organisations internationales Quelques repères, Document d’information, Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Janvier 2006.
78. Reisman, Michael W., “Sovereignty and Human Rights in Contemporary International Law”, American Journal of International Law, Vol. 84, 1990, pp. 866-876.
79. Scheffer, David, “Atrocity Crimes Framing the Responsibility to Protect”, in Cooper, Richard H., Voïnov, Kohler Juliet (ed.) op. cit. pp. 77-98.
80. Shen, Jianming, “The Non-Intervention Principle and Humanitarian Interventions under International Law”, International Legal Theory, Vol. 7 n°1, 2001, pp. 1-29.
81. Simma, Bruno; Alston, Philip, “The Sources of Human Rights Law”, Australian Yearbook of International Law, Vol. 12, No. 82, 1992; pp. 82-108.
82. Soltani, Rasool; Moradi, Maryam, “The Evolution of the Concept of International Peace and Security in light of UN Security Council Practice (End of the Cold War-Until Now)”, Open Journal of Political Science, No. 7, 2017, pp. 133-144.
83. Tams, Christian J., “Individual States as Guardians of Community Interests”, in From Bilateralism to Community Interest: Essays in Honour of Judge Bruno Simma, No. 379, pp. 379-405.
84. Thakur, Ramesh, “From National to Human Security”, in Harris, S. Mack A. (eds.), Asia Pacific Security: The Economics-Politics Nexus, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, Sydney, 1997, pp. 52-80.
85. Thirlway, Hugh, The Sources of International Law, Oxford University Press, 2019.
86. UNHCR, The State of the World's Refugees: The Challenge of Protection, Penguin Books, 1993.
87. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 1994, New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994.
88. United Nations Security Council, Resolution 3 December 1994.
89. United Nations Security Council, Resolution 688, 5 April 1991.
90. United Nations Security Council, Resolution 918, 17 May 1994.
91. United Nations Security Council, Resolution 940, 31 July 1994.
92. United Nations, doc. S/22435, 2 April 1991: Letter from the Permanent Representative of Turkey to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council.
93. United Nations, General Assembly, 2005 World Summit Outcome, Resolution A/RES/60/1, 24 October 2005.
94. United Nations, General Assembly, Follow-up to paragraph 143 on human security of the 2005 World Summit Outcome, Resolution A/RES/66/290, 10 September 2012.
95. United Nations, General Assembly, Follow-up to the outcome of the Millennium Summit, Concept note on the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity, Note by the President of the General Assembly, A/63/958, 9 September 2009.
96. United Nations, General Assembly, Follow-up to the outcome of the Millennium Summit, Follow-up to General Assembly resolution 64/291 on human security, Report of the Secretary-General, A/66/763, 5 April 2012.
97. United Nations, General Assembly, Follow-up to the outcome of the Millennium Summit, Responsibility to protect: timely and decisive response, Report of the Secretary-General, A/66/874–S/2012/578, 25 July 2012.
98. United Nations, General Assembly, Follow-up to the outcome of the Millennium Summit, Responsibility to protect: State responsibility and prevention, Report of the Secretary-General, A/67/929–S/2013/399, 9 July 2013.
99. United Nations, General Assembly, Follow-up to the outcome of the Millennium Summit, Mobilizing collective action: the next decade of the responsibility to protect, Report of the Secretary-General, A/70/999–S/2016/620, 22 July 2016.
100. United Nations, General Assembly, In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All, Report of the Secretary-General, A/59/2005, 21 March 2005.
101. United Nations, General Assembly, Integrated and coordinated implementation of and follow-up to the outcomes of the major United Nations conferences and summits in the economic, social and related fields, Follow-up to the outcome of the Millennium Summit, Human security, Report of the Secretary-General, A/64/701, 8 march 2010.
102. United Nations, General Assembly, Security Council, Follow-up to the outcome of the Millennium Summit, Responsibility to protect: from early warning to early action, Report of the Secretary-General, A/72/884–S/2018/525, June 2018.
103. United Nations, Resolution 1973, S/RES/197, 17 March 2011.
104. United Nations, Resolution, 1962, S/RES/1962, 20 December 2010.
105. Vargiu, Paolo; Deplano, Rossana, “Human Rights Dimension of UN Security Council Resolutions”, in Essays on human rights: A celebration of the life of Dr. Janusz Kochanowski, Jo Carby-Hall, (ed.), Ius et Lex, Warsaw, 2014, pp. 520-541.
106. Vashakmadze, Mindia, “Responsibility to Protect”, in Simma B. et al. (eds.), The Charter of the United Nations, A Commentary, 3rd ed., 2012; pp. 1207-1236.
107. Verdeja, Ernesto, “Predicting Genocide and Mass Atrocities”, in Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, Vol. 9: Iss. 3, 2016, pp. 13-32
108. Vincent, Raymond John, The Principle of Non-Intervention and International Order, Ph.D. Thesis, Australian National University, September 1971.
109. Von Tigerstrom, Barbara, Human Security and International Law, Prospects and Problems, Oxford and Portland, Oregon, 2007.
110. Welsh, Jennifer, “The Security Council and Humanitarian Intervention” in Lowe, Vaughan; Roberts, Adam; Welsh, Jennifer; Zaum, Dominik, The United Nations Security Council and War, The Evolution of Thought And Practice Since 1945, Oxford University Press, New York, 2008, pp. 535-562.